______ Chemistry
- Study of carbon and its compounds
- Substances that are primarily composed of carbon have been known as organic substances
______
- Chemistry of living organisms
- Study of biology at the cellular and molecular level
Organic Chemistry
Biochemistry
Metabolism – ______ and _____ processes
- ______ process- degradation of macromolecules to produce simpler substances to use as energy
- ______ process- formation of a larger compound/ formation of a macromolecule; usually requires energy for completion
Metabolism – anabolic and catabolic processes
- Catabolic process- degradation of macromolecules to produce simpler substances to use as energy
- Anabolic process- formation of a larger compound/ formation of a macromolecule; usually requires energy for completion
______ – how life is replicated, regulation of protein synthesis
___________- process by which instructions in the DNA are converted into functional product
- 3 Key Processes:
• _______- Formation of new DNA
• _______- Conversion of DNA to RNA
• _______- Formation of peptides from RNA
Molecular Genetics – how life is replicated, regulation of protein synthesis
- Central Dogma- process by which instructions in the DNA are converted into functional product
• Replication- Formation of new DNA
• Transcription- Conversion of DNA to RNA
• Translation- Formation of peptides from RNA
???? & ????
Formed when two or more atoms unite in the basis of their electron structure
- ______- basic unit of compounds
A. _____
- Period _____ and Group _____ of the Periodic Table of Elements
- _____- forms four different covalent bonds to other atoms
- Has the ability to participate in a wide variety of chemical reactions and is able to form different compounds with other elements
MOLECULES & COMPOUNDS
- Atoms- basic unit of compounds
A. Carbon
- Period 2 and Group IV of the Periodic Table of Elements
- Tetravalent- forms four different covalent bonds to other atoms
TYPES OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
_______ Bond - Involves in the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in the production of charged atoms, known as ions
- These ions can be positively charged (_______) or negatively charged (_______).
_______ Bond - Results from the sharing of electrons between
Ionic Bond - Involves in the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in the production of charged atoms, known as ions - These ions can be positively charged (cations) or negatively charged (anions).
Covalent Bond - Results from the sharing of electrons between
Site of organic chemical reactions
• _______ - Double/triple bond - In a multiple bond, there is sharing of a lot of electrons which leads to a high concentration of electrons in the bond. Slight disruption will cause the bond to break.
• _______ - If there is unequal sharing of electrons, a slight disruption will also cause the bond to break
• _______ and _______ Characteristics
• Multiple Bonds - Double/triple bond - In a multiple bond, there is sharing of a lot of electrons which leads to a high concentration of electrons in the bond. Slight disruption will cause the bond to break.
• Polar Groups - If there is unequal sharing of electrons, a slight disruption will also cause the bond to break
• Lewis Acid and Lewis Base Characteristics
Reaction Intermediates
•____________, _________ - The formation of a C-C bond involves the combination of a nucleophilic carbanion and an electrophilic carbocation.
• _________ - Very reactive because it contains an unpaired electron - Since it is unpaired, it will look for a bond to destroy. Once bond is destroyed, it will take its electron thus causing a formation of a new free radical
• Carbocations, Carbanions - The formation of a C-C bond involves the combination of a nucleophilic carbanion and an electrophilic carbocation.
• Free Radicals - Very reactive because it contains an unpaired electron - Since it is unpaired, it will look for a bond to destroy. Once bond is destroyed, it will take its electron thus causing a formation of a new free radical
GENERAL TYPES OF ORGANIC REACTIONS
A. _________ Reactions - This is usually a characteristic of unsaturated compound and usually result to disruption of multiple bonds
B. _________ Reactions - Reverse of addition, formation of double bonds
C. _________ Reactions - Replacement of one substituent by another
D. _________ Reactions - Rearrangement of the structure of a compound
A. Addition Reactions - This is usually a characteristic of unsaturated compound and usually result to disruption of multiple bonds
B. Elimination Reactions - Reverse of addition, formation of double bonds
C. Substitution Reactions - Replacement of one substituent by another
D. Rearrangement Reactions - Rearrangement of the structure of a compound
The properties of organic compounds are largely influenced by these factors:
• __________
- Structural effects:
• __________- in alternating double bonds
• __________ – distortion of electron cloud
• __________ – pi electron delocalization
• __________ – sigma electron delocalization
• Intermolecular forces of attraction
• Molecular geometry
• Orbital hybridization- in alternating double bonds
• Steric effects
• Inductive effects – distortion of electron cloud
• Resonance – pi electron delocalization
• CH Hyperconjugation – sigma electron delocalization
POLAR COVALENT BONDS
- A given bond is either ionic and covalent. However, the shared electrons in ______ bonds tend to be attracted somewhat more strongly by one atom by the other.
- We call such bonds with unsymmetrical electron distribution as ______ ______ bonds.
______- Bond polarity is due to differences in electronegativity, the intrinsic ability of an atom to attract electrons in covalent bond.
Sharing of electron favors the atom with a ______ electronegativity because molecules are more attracted to it.
- A given bond is either ionic and covalent. However, the shared electrons in covalent bonds tend to be attracted somewhat more strongly by one atom by the other.
- We call such bonds with unsymmetrical electron distribution as polar covalent bonds.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY - Bond polarity is due to differences in electronegativity, the intrinsic ability of an atom to attract electrons in covalent bond.
Sharing of electron favors the atom with a higher electronegativity because molecules are more attracted to it.
BOND POLARITY
similar or almost the same: _________
<2: _________
>2: _________
similar or almost the same: nonpolar covalent bonds
<2: polar covalent bonds
>2: ionic bonds
- As a rule, bonds between atoms with similar or almost the same electronegativities (EN) are nonpolar covalent bonds, bonds between atoms whose electronegativities differ by less than 2 units are polar covalent, and bonds between atoms whose electronegativities differ by more than 2 units are ionic bonds.
MOLECULE POLARITY
- The polarity of a molecule is dictated by its ______ AND the ______ existing within molecule.
- A molecule with polar bonds may not necessarily be polar. Why? (because of the shape it may present)
- The ______or the total or net product of vectors or charges is considered through their molecular geometry. - For example: Ammonia and Carbon dioxide
• CO2 bonds are polar but the compound is nonpolar because of its linear shape
• Take note of the symmetry
- The polarity of a molecule is dictated by its geometry AND the individual bonds existing within molecule.
- The Dipole Moment or the total or net product of vectors or charges is considered through their molecular geometry. - For example: Ammonia and Carbon dioxide
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION
Forces of attraction between molecules is important because we can predict their physical properties
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - _______ is one the most important properties of organic compounds
- These properties of organic compounds is generally related to the intermolecular forces of attraction or IMFA.
_______ are the forces that must be overcome or broken during melting, evaporation and sublimation.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - Solubility is one the most important properties of organic compounds
IMFA are the forces that must be overcome or broken during melting, evaporation and sublimation.
(just read)
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
- Recall that atoms in molecules are associated with other atoms by covalent bonds.
- Between ionic and covalent bonds, ionic bond is stronger because of the electrostatic forces that are formed between cations and anions.
- These are relatively strong bonds and are called intramolecular forces.
- We differentiate this from IMFA, which are forces between molecules.
Types of IMFA
• ______ dispersion forces (Ldf)
• ______ -______ forces
o ______ Bond
• Ldf and Dipole-dipole forces are collectively known as ______
• _____-_____ forces – of ionic organic compounds
• London dispersion forces (Ldf)
• Dipole-dipole forces
o Hydrogen Bond
• Ldf and Dipole-dipole forces are collectively known as van der Waals forces (vdW)
• Ion-Ion forces – of ionic organic compounds
o London Dispersion Forces
• Ldf are present in all substance, the only IMFA present in non-polar substances and noble gases.
• Usually increase with _______; the larger the ……., the stronger the Ldf
• For example, let us compare N2, Cl2 and F2
• Usually increase with molar mass (MM); the larger the MM, the stronger the Ldf
1. Dipole-Dipole Forces - Polar molecules exhibit dipole-dipole forces aside from Ldf.
- The more ……. the molecule, the stronger the dipole-dipole interaction
Let us consider: HI, HBr and HCl, which among the three exhibits the strongest dipole-dipole interaction?
- The more polar the molecule, the stronger the dipole-dipole interaction
Assessing Vander Waals Forces
- If the substances are of widely different MM, ______ are considered important than dipole-dipole interaction in determining the relative strength of vdW forces
- If the MM of is relatively close, the presence of _______ interaction greatly contributes in determining the relative vdW
- E.g., HCl has -dipole forces but based on their MM, HBr has stronger dipole stronger Ldf
- If the substances are of widely different MM, Ldf are considered important than dipole-dipole interaction in determining the relative strength of vdW forces
- If the MM of is relatively close, the presence of dipoledipole interaction greatly contributes in determining the relative vdW
_____________
- …….. bonding is a strong IMFA and a special type of dipole-dipole interaction.
- It is present among molecules which contain hydrogen bound to a small, highly electronegative atom such as ____, ______ and _______.
Hydrogen Bonding
- Hydrogen bonding is a strong IMFA and a special type of dipole-dipole interaction.
- It is present among molecules which contain hydrogen bound to a small, highly electronegative atom such as N, O and F.
_______
- Every ionic compound is held in a well-ordered crystalline state.
- The forces that hold ions together are strong electrostatic lattice forces, an adequate amount of energy is needed to break the orderly structure of the crystal.
- In sodium acetate, an ionic organic compound, BP is very high that it tends to decompose before it boils.
- Strongest intermolecular force
Ion-Ion Forces
SOLUBILITY & MISCIBILITY BASED ON POLARITY
- “Like dissolves like”
• The overall solvation capacity of a solvent depends upon its polarity
• _____ solvents like water dissolve _____ solutes (hydro_____)
• Polar solvents like water dissolve polar solutes (hydrophilic)
• Nonpolar solvent dissolves nonpolar solutes (hydrophobic)
- _________ are defined as compounds possessing the same molecular formula but different structural formula
- Chemical compounds that have identical chemical formulae but differ in properties and the arrangement of atoms in the molecule are called ……….
ISOMERISM
Isomers
• __________/__________ isomerism
- Variation in the bonding arrangement of atoms or groups
o __________ - Same molecular formula but different carbon skeleton (involves Hydrocarbons)
o __________ - Similar functional groups but the functional groups are in different position
o __________ - Same number of atoms but different functional groups that are present
Structural/constitutional isomerism
o Skeletal - Same molecular formula but different carbon skeleton (involves Hydrocarbons)
o Positional - Similar functional groups but the functional groups are in different position
o Functional - Same number of atoms but different functional groups that are present
___________- No variation in bonding arrangement, only in orientation in space.
___________ have the same chemical formula but differ in the position of the hydroxyl groups on one or more of their asymmetric carbons.
Stereoisomerism
Stereoisomers
• 2 Main Types of Stereoisomers:
o ________- mirror images that are nonsuperimposable with each other; different group of compounds
o ________- optical isomers that have different spatial arrangements
a. ________ isomer- components attached on the carbon double bond are on the same side
b. ________ isomer- components attached are found on separate sides
o Enantiomers- mirror images that are nonsuperimposable with each other; different group of compounds
o Diastereomers- optical isomers that have different spatial arrangements
a. Cis isomer- components attached on the carbon double bond are on the same side
b. Trans isomer- components attached are found on separate sides
___________ -stereoisomers that differ in the position of the hydroxyl group at only one asymmetric carbon.
o _______- different rotation of the molecules
o _______- they change in space due to rotational single bond but they easily just go back to their stable form (they are not really an isomer)
o _______- different orientation in spaces. To add, both Conformational and Geometric isomerism have different orientation in spaces.
Epimers-stereoisomers that differ in the position of the hydroxyl group at only one asymmetric carbon.
o Optical- different rotation of the molecules
o Conformational- they change in space due to rotational single bond but they easily just go back to their stable form (they are not really an isomer)
o Geometric- different orientation in spaces. To add, both Conformational and Geometric isomerism have different orientation in spaces.
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