Chapter 1

Tourism is a social, cultural and economic phenomenon which entails the movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal or business/professional purposes. These people are called visitors (which may be either tourists or excursionists; residents or non-residents) and tourism has to do with their activities, some of which involve tourism expenditure

• Tourism is an interdisciplinary activity whose study must be carried out in collaboration with different areas of knowledge

• Tourism should be understood as a system of relationships between the subject (the tourist) and an object (the receiver, the company and the tourism organisation)

• Influence of different environments: economic, sociological, legal, political, psychological, ecological and technological.

• Domestic Tourism (domestic) —> Residents visiting their home country

• Outbound tourism (outbound) —> Residents of the country to other countries

• Inbound tourism —> Non-residents from other countries

These three forms of tourism can be combined in:

• Domestic Tourism = Domestic + Inbound

• Domestic Tourism = Domestic + Emitter

• International Tourism = Outbound + Inbound

a) When there is displacement from one place to another

b) When the displacement is voluntary. Displacement by nomadic populations, "Refugees" do not represent tourist trips

c) When it is temporary: with the intention of returning. The UNWTO establishes a maximum stay of 12 months

d) When it is outside the usual environment

e) When it is made for a specific motivation

The UNWTO calls other travellers all those who, for some reason, should not be included in the statistics either as tourists or as excursionists:

• Business travellers

• Diplomatic or consular staff

• Nomads and refugees

• Armed forces on manoeuvre

• Crews in public transport

• Transit passengers (stopovers)

• Persons travelling to a country for the purpose of settling in that country

• Students and patients and people accompanying theman

According to their role:

• Organised mass tourist: Not looking for adventure. Seeks organised tourist packages and hardly interacts with the receiving nucleus. Repetitive destinations. Within their "environmental bubble"

• Individual mass tourist: Same as the organised tourist but more flexible in terms of place, time and dates

• Explorer: More daring and tries to overcome the bubble but in complicated situations returns to it

• Adventurer: Deliberately moves away from the bubble and has no contact with the tourism industry. Integrates into destinations

Environmental bubble: For tourists, travel sometimes brings with it the comfort of what is familiar because it reproduces their own culture and way of life and in a way isolates them from the destination.

From a psychographic perspective:

• Psychocentric: More self-centred and introverted. Seeks known and developed destinations in an organised way. Low activity and seeks security, ease. Lower income and less frequent tourism

• Lococentric: More extroverted, prefers areas with little tourist development, likes to explore and meet local people. Very active, demanding and travels more frequently

• Centric: Mix of the 2 previous ones

Depending on income:

• luxury

  • Use expensive services

  • Prefer remote and exotic destinations

• massive

  • Use of Standard Services

  • Known destinations

• social tourism

  • institutional programmes

  • Known destinations

    
    

1. The anticipation phase takes place before the trip and involves perceptions and expectations of the destinations as the tourist embarks on making their travel decision.

2. In the realisation phase the destination experience is the goal of the trip and is combined with both the outward and return journeys as part of the total experience. It is here that the tourist can instantly communicate their impressions of the experience to the world, for instance through blogs or social media.

3. In the recollection phase after the trip, the extent to which the quality of these experiences met expectations will influence future travel decisions.

"Movement or displacement of people from an origin or sending nucleus (country, region, city) to a destination or receiving nucleus".

• By length of stay

  • Short stay

  • Long stay

• By the trip motivation

  • Recreation

  • Rest

  • Culture

  • Health

  • Professional ?

• By way of travel

  • Tour

  • Solo

• By means of transport

  • Air

  • Maritime

  • Land

"Any country, region, locality, geographical point without any limit that generates a Tourist activity"

a) The origin of travellers determines the outbound markets and their potential

b) The destination or territory of travel from the demand point of view.

c) The duration of the trip. The duration of the trip is measured in overnight stays, according to UNWTO:

• 0 nights = Excusionists

• From 1 to 365 nights = Tourists

d) The distance between the sending and receiving centres.

e) The means of transport used for the trip. Allows for a better identification of the visitor's profile

f) Motivation

1) Tourism is primarily an intra-regional phenomenon (most travel is to the same region of the world from which it originates).

2) Tourism flows and activity develop in a very heterogeneous way around the world.

3) They are retractable (einfahrbar), i.e. the tendency of flows is usually to retract or even disappear when conditions of force majeure occur (wars, terrorism, catastrophes, pandemics, economic crises, etc.).

4) The retraction of tourist flows is often accompanied by a certain substitution effect, sometimes called the Law of Current Diversion (example: Covid19).

5) TTOOs have a great influence on tourist flows. They are producers of supply.

6) Tourist flows nowadays are highly experienced travellers. (Digitalisation).

7) Seasonality. They tend to be concentrated in space, time and motivation.

a) Ecological or green tourism. The intention is to observe nature in its most primitive state.

b) Active/passive tourism. The traveller is not only looking to visit, but also to take part in certain activities (sports, adventure, excursions...).

c) Fair, solidarity or equitable tourism. SE-EP (suistainable Tuismor - Eliminig proverty)

d) Accessible tourism. A form of tourism that involves collaboration between agents to create an offer for people with special access needs (mobility, vision, hearing,...).

• Seasonality is a characteristic of flows that can be defined as their tendency to converge (zusammenlaufen) in space, in time and for the same reason. Thus, for certain types or classes of tourism there will be a seasonality:

  • High season (peak season). Characterised by a more intense concentration of visitors

  • Low season (off peak season). The volume of visitors is much lower

• The weather. Good weather is usually a factor inversely proportional to the number of visitors. Countries in the Northern Hemisphere have a more pronounced seasonality because the length of the summer is shorter. In the Southern Hemisphere, temperatures are stable and seasonality is conditioned by periods of greater risk of extreme weather conditions.

• Institutional seasonality. This refers to seasonal variations in arrivals caused by human decisions, often based on legislation. Work and school holidays, public holidays, weekends, celebrations, etc., with work and educational holidays having the greatest influence.

• Social pressure, fashion, sports season and habits or inertia

• The calendar can have an impact on seasonality. There are months with more or less weekends. Or how Easter falls in the calendar (i.e. February).

• Saturation of resources

• Lack of public supplies and services

• Saturation in private enterprises

• Shortage of skilled manpower

• Pollution

• Financing problems for the receiving nuclei (Taxes, infrastructures, tax collection,...)

• Inflation

• Extending the high season

  • Weather permitting

  • Highlight the advantages for customers of travelling during these extended periods.

  • Necessary diversification of the destination's offer and offer attractive alternatives (shows, congresses, sports, etc.).

• Search for new market segments

  • Business travellers

  • Senior travellers

  • Congresses

• Public-private partnerships

  • Incentives for off-season product development.

  • Subsidies for all-season product marketing, information provision and promotion strategies.

  • Co-ordination of sub-sector co-operation (transport, hospitality, leisure) and promotion of tourist attractions.

  • tourist attractions.

• Reduction and redistribution of demand in high season

  • Pricing or tariff strategies to redistribute demand for access to activities.

  • Pricing or tariff strategies to redistribute demand for the destination's supply. Peak hours (alternative transport, different circuits, ...)

• Reduction and redistribution of supply in high season

  • Adapting the offer to current needs and demand.

  • Attention to other segments. Professional events

Controls on tourist movement are very important for reasons of:

• Security

• Toilets

• Immigration

• Foreign exchange

The administrative formalities established in the various countries or economic areas often constitute an obstacle to travel. Although there is a clamour for these formalities to be made more flexible in order to facilitate travel, the globalisation of diseases and the spread of terrorism mean that controls cannot be made more flexible, but rather more restrictive.

• They are intended to prevent the spread of certain diseases or pests.

• health diseases or plagues.

• Tourism involves travel to geographic locations where endemic diseases exist, so that an enforceable vaccination policy makes sense. Responsible WHO.

• The international vaccination certificate is provided for in the International Health Regulations (2005). This regulation allows receiving centres to prevent the entry and exit of travellers who do not have this certificate.

• Each country has a system in place to control the identity of those who intend to cross its border (passport), to which is usually added the need to obtain prior entry permission (visa).

• Entry requirements for tourists vary from state to state.

E.g. passport, visa, monetary controls

• The tourism system from an economic perspective comprises all the businesses, organisations (both public and private sector) and civil society necessary to attract tourists, facilitate their travel and provide them with food, complementary offerings, and other touristic services.

• According to the UNWTO, the tourism system is made up of:

  • The demand side

  • Supply

  • Geographical space

  • Market operators

• Tourism represents an open system as it interacts with elements and influences external to tourism.

• The system is composed of a number of sub-systems, for example, the accommodation distribution networks or the public sector marketing system.

• The underlying causes of some of the system linkages are understood, but many are not, for example with the complex relationship between the environment and tourism in the destination.

• Tourism systems are subject to "feedback". In this regard, Hall et al. (2017) offer the example of an ecotourism destination where its own success leads to more tourists visiting and the loss of the original purpose of ecotourism.

• Specialised tourism

• Need to maximise yield per room

• Complementary offer

• Price/quality oriented

• Higher level of spending in the destination

• Interest in local customs and culture

• In search of personalised experiences

• Tourism demand had been growing steadily until 2008

• Tourism receipts in 2008 were 642 billion euros (UNWTO, 2008).

• Reasons for travel:

  • 51% pleasure, recreation and holidays.

  • 15% business tourism.

  • 27% visits to friends or relatives, religious reasons and health treatment.

What are the main changes in tourism demand?

• Demand in tourism has broadened its specialisation

• Changes in supply and intermediation

The tourism agents that make up the business group are divided into three areas of activity:

1. Final suppliers: they provide the final product to the client and are divided into sectors: accommodation sector, catering sector, transport sector and various services sector.

2. Distributors: they act as extensions of the final supplier. Distribution and promotion of the product.

3. Organisers and mediators

• (Non)Hotel establishments sub-sector

• Catering sector

• Transport sector

• Miscellaneous services sector

• Electronic reservation systems

• Central reservation Hotel reservation centres

• General Sales Agents Sector

  
  

• Travel agency sector

• Tour Operators

1. Demand transformation

   • The internationalisation of the economy: the free movement of capital around the world produces the economic development of other countries, which, in turn, increase their demand for tourism and also see the tourism sector as a potential for development.

   • The information society: access to and distribution of information has changed society. There are changes in tourism demand: personalised services,

   • economic and fast services.

   • Therefore, customers have more information and can even manufacture the product they want to buy themselves.

   • The success of a company or tourist destination, in the information society,

   • will come from offering those services that the customer asks for or would ask for, if he/she knew of their existence, and had verified their usefulness. "Tourism is a variable economic activity, basically because the demand for products or services related to the leisure sector is variable. This sector is very affected by fashions, special circumstances (wars, illnesses) either temporarily or permanently"

Changes in tourism demand can be summarised as follows:

• A more experienced customer

• The emergence of the individual tourist

• Seeking better value for money

• Possibility of accessing more distant, new, exotic and also very competitive destinations in terms of price.

• Reducing the length of their holidays

• Desire for human contact

• With a population pyramid that is tending to invert.

• Economic paradigm shift. Greater availability for leisure

—>

• These changes facilitate and, at the same time, promote the idea that the customer can create his own products.

• This is known as dynamic packaging, according to Tödter and Brig. "Trips in the future will not be created and then offered by travel organisers, but will be created when the customer wants to buy the trip, or when the distribution channels ask for them"

The new image of the services

• Trusted: they will be recommended by members of the client's online community and, in turn, can be recommended by other members of the community.

• Personalised: services tailored to the client's wishes and needs.

• HIGH ADDED VALUE: it is not about giving more, but about giving more than what the customer wants (expectations),

The concept of the Tourism Multiplier Effect refers to the impact of tourism expenditure on the economy. The Tourism Multiplier Effect is the quantification of the production obtained as a consequence of an increase in Tourism expenditure. As a concept and within the framework of the study and analysis of Tourism as a science, the Tourism Multiplier Effect is the circulation that money spent on Tourism produces in the economy of a given place.

Fletcher (2000) points out that the multiplier effect of tourism can be estimated by analysing the direct, indirect and induced effects of tourism expenditures.

• Direct economic effects These are those effects derived from the tourism activity itself and its exploitation. When tourists spend on the services of hotels, restaurants, transport, communication and shopping, among others, this has an effect as direct income, production, taxes for the government and jobs, and will also require direct imports of goods and services.

• Indirect economic effects These are the subsequent effects that are produced by tourism spending and that impact on other sectors and/or agents. For example, a tourist can spend money during his stay in a restaurant and this in turn, buys food in the food sector, generates employment so that these employees can spend money in other sectors and so on exponentially.

• Induced effects They are presented due to the level of direct and indirect economic impacts and will result in income for local residents and the local economy.

International:

• World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO)

• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

• Eurostat

• World Bank (WB)

• European Central Bank

National:

• Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE)

• Instituto de Estudios Turísticos

• Exceltur

• Federación Española de Hostelería y Turismo (FEHR)

Regional

• Instituto Aragonés de Estadística

• ISTAC Instituto Canario de Estadística