Etiolgoy

Uncontrolled and/or refractory hypertension (see “Hypertensive emergencies”)

New/worsening cardiac ischemia

Arrhythmias (e.g., atrial fibrillation with RVR, complete heart block)

Serious infection/sepsis (e.g., pneumonia)

Drugs

• Nonadherence to heart failure medication

• NSAID use

• Drugs with negative inotropic properties (e.g., nondihydropyridine CCBs) [2]

• Starting or uptitrating beta blockers [5]

• Thiazolidinediones

• Recreational substance use, e.g., cocaine, alcohol, methamphetamines

Anemia

Renal failure

Volume overload, e.g., due to inappropriate fluid/salt intake or IV fluid therapy

In 40–50% of cases, no trigger is found.

Acute myocardial dysfunction

• Cardiac ischemia due to acute coronary syndrome (ACS)

• Myocarditis

• Drug-induced cardiomyopathy [4]

• Peripartum cardiomyopathy

• Thyroid storm

• Tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy

• Takotsubo cardiomyopathy

Acquired valvular pathology

• Acute mitral regurgitation after ACS

• Bacterial endocarditis

• Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis

Extracardiac pathologies that affect left ventricular output

• Pulmonary embolus

• Pericardial effusion causing tamponade

• Aortic dissection