Pharmacological treatment of stable COPD according to stages (table).
Follow-up treatment (table).
Describe the principle of inhaled corticosteroids.
General principles
ICS should only be used in combination with long-acting bronchodilators.
Commonly used agents include budesonide, fluticasone, beclomethasone.
List other drugs that could be used.
Methylxanthines (e.g., theophylline)
Nonselectively antagonize adenosine receptors and inhibit phosphodiesterase
May be trialed if other bronchodilators are not available; the benefit is unproven.
Mucolytics (e.g., N-acetylcysteine, erdosteine)
Liquefy mucus by reducing the disulfide bonds of mucoproteins
Can be useful in reducing exacerbations in certain patients
Vitamin D3: may reduce the risk of exacerbations in patients with low baseline levels [24]
α1-antitrypsin augmentation therapy
For patients with AATD and emphysema
May be especially beneficial for nonsmokers with an FEV1 of 35–60%
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