Vorlesung Hoppe

ca. 145 billion euros (2020)

Musculoskeletal disorders, diseases of the respiratory organs and mental disorders cause the highest illness costs

mental illnesses result in most days of incapacity to work per case

• Musculoskeletal disorders, diseases of the respiratory organs and mental disorders cause the highest illness costs (BAuA, 2020).

• Mental illnesses result in the most days of incapacity to work per case (Meschede et al, 2020).

engineering models: stress as stimulus

—> Sir Charles Symonds (1947): “stress is that which happens TO the man, not that which happens IN him, it is a set of CAUSES not a set of SYMPTOMS”

physiological models: stress as reaction

—> Selye (1950): Stess is “a state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the non-specific changes within the biologic system”

—> immediate alarm reaction (fight or flight)

—> phase of recovery (regeneration)

—> Final stage exhaustion (in the case of persistent/chrinic stress)

Criticism:

• Stimulus and response are considered separately

• Focus on the individual (physiologcal models) suggest responsibility on the individual

• interplay of stimulus (stressor) and response (Strain)

• involves elements of perception, cognition and emotion

• allows for the consideration of individual differences

• Person-environment fit model (French & Caplan, 1972)

• Effort-Reward-Imbalance (Siegrist, 1996)

• Job demand control model (Karasek, 1979)

• Job demands resources model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007)

Strain occurs when:

• demands exceed employees capabilities

• needs of employees are not satisfied by the work (work environment or task)

• Michigan School Approach

• Individual evaluations are not considered (maybe sb doesnt want more difficult tasks etc.)

• relatively vague theory, difficult to test

• Methodological problems: no validated approach to measure P-E fit

Imbalance is maintained if

• no job alternatives are available

• for strategic reasons (career options later on)

• certain motivational patterns (e.g. overcommitment)

3 studies

• lower job control, higher job strain and higher ERI associated with higher BMI

• people with high ERI are 40% more likely to have simultaneously >= 3 lifestyle risk factors compared with their counterparts with low ERI (smoking, drinking, physically inactive, high BMI)

• people reporting ERI were 1.58 times mores likely to develop chronic heart disease

• Job demands

• Control = Decision Latitude

• Job Strain

Strain hypothesis: employees in high strain jobs have the worst well-being, decision ltitude and job demands have a direct effect on well-being

Buffer hypothesis: decision latitude can moderate the negative effect of job demands on strain —> serves as a buffer between job demands and strain

JDC is the most widely applied work-related stress model of the last 20-30 years

Review by Häusser 2010: High demands and low decision latitude are associated with

—> lower job satisfaction

—> increased emotional exhaustion

—> lower psychological well-being

Meta-Analysis by Gonzalez-Mulé 2020: High demands and lower control are associated with increased burnout risk and lower job satisfaction

Reveiw by Schnall 1994: High demands and low decision latitude are associated with cardiovascular diseases

Job control as the only resource

1988 Johnson & Hall extend the model to include “social support” —> Job demand control support model (JDCS)

Job resources: physical, psychological, social or organizational aspects of the job that either/or

1. reduce job demands and the associated physiological and psychological costs

2. are functional in achieving work goals

3. stimulate personal growth, learning and development

Two parallel processes are at work:

• health impairment process: job demands cause strain

• motivaltional process: job resources increase motivation and lead to work engagement and positive organizational outcomes

Criticism: not very concrete model

‘Transaction’ implies that “stress is neither in the environmental input nor in the person, but reflects the conjunction of a person with certain motives and beliefs with an environment whose characteristics pose harm, threats or challenges depending on these personal characteristics” (Lazarus, 1990).

• help us better understand the stress process along with its mechanisms

• give us ideas for how we can start to reduce work-related stressors and promote resources

“Job demands refer to those physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical and/or psychological (cognitive and emotional) effort or skills and are therefore associated with certain physiological and/or psychological costs.

Examples are a high work pressure, an unfavorable physical environment, and emotionally demanding interactions with clients.

Although job demands are not necessarily negative, they may turn into job stressors when meeting those demands requires high effort from which the employee has not adequately recovered”

• Stressors resulting from the work task and work organisation (time pressure, role stress, illegitimate tasks)

• Social Stressors (bullying, conflicts, injustice)

• Stressors resulting from the iteraction with customers, patients etc. (emotional work)

• Conflicts between work and other life domains

Time pressure:

• requirement to work fast, high volume, long hours

• most frequently studied stressor

• empirically largely confirmed associaton with strain

• BUT: we do not only observe negative effects, also positive effects —> challenge hindrance framework

Role stress:

• Role conflict: incompatible demands from two or more persons regarding the role in the job (e.g. position) or conflict between the roles one performs

• Role ambiguitiy: Uncertainty about what is expected

• Role overload: Too little time to fulfill the role

Illegitimate tasks:

• unnecessary tasks

• unreasonably tasks

• partly differencial effects of stressors

Challenge Stressors: Time pressure, work complexity, work volume —> can have positive effects on motivational outcomes bc opportunity to grow

Empirically: positive effect on strain BUT also on motivational factors und performance (only short term positive)

Hindrance Stressors: Bureaucracy, role ambiguity, role stress, everyday conflicts: Exclusively negative effect —> represent obstacles to personal development or task completion

• Examples: Conflicts at work, bullying, disrespectful or unfair behaviour

• often a threat to self-esteem

• do not exclusively result in poor relations at work level, high situational stressors and lack of resources can also promote social stressors

  
  

• being harassed, excluded etc.

• by colleagues, superiors or subordinates

• person is inferior in this situation

• occurs frequently and repeatedly (at least 1x per week)

• extends over a longer period of time (at least 6 months)

No bullying if:

• single incidents

• conflict between two equally strong parties

• a harsh climate all employees are exposed to

For the victim:

• psychosomatic complaints, anxiety disorders and depression

• Post traumatic stress syndrome

For the organisation:

• productivity losses

• increase in absenteeism

• Costs due to turnover and transfers

Bullying does not have one cause, but develops if multiple conditions apply (Zapf 1999)

relevant preconditions:

• organisational factors for working environment and conditions

• social processes and factors (e.g. social climate, leadership behaviours)

• high levels of strain among employees resulting from work

• personality factors

• longitudinal, 2 timepoints (1 year apart), n=1.500

• experiences of bullying as well as anxiety, depression and fatigue (measure for strain/stress) were measured

• consistently shows negative effects on well-being and performance indicators among employees

• poor working conditions and organisational structures can facilitate bullying

• reciprocal effects between bullying and well-being

specific work-related stress syndrome caused by prolonged intense job demands

3 components:

• physical, mental and emotional exhaustion

• attitude towards work / distanced cynical approach to customers and clients

• reduced experience of effectiveness or performance

slow process with certain sequence and increase of symptom complexes

in ICD-11 (01/22), burnout is classified as a distinct syndrome

• not classified as distrinct medical condition

• in ICD-10 burnout was not an independantly classified disease but on of the factors that influence health status and lead to the use of health care, only as additional information to another diagnosis

• incapacity to work hast more than doubled (from 51 to 120 days, 3,1 to 5,7 cases) due to Z 73 between 2009 and 2018

• burnout and depression often cannot be clearly distinguished (depending on severity of burnout)

• exhaustion as a loss of energy is a core depressive symptom

1. Workload

2. Job control (autonomy)

3. Feedback (task, colleague, supervisor)

4. Social relationships - social support - workplace community

5. Fairness

6. Values (working within own values)

Misfit between internal dispositions and external conditions

• too high professional commitment

• high expectations of oneself

• high readiness to perform

• seeking perfection

• high need for control

• difficulty in setting boundaries

• difficulty in saying no

• overestimation of own strenghts and resilience

• lack of sensitivity to warning signs

• exhaustion is the central quality of burnout, most often what people describe when talking about burnout

• also only dimension of burnout that has been conclusively linked to a deterioration of objective job performance

• often what is being measured in studies

• précaire: fragile, instable, insecure, risky

• work is uncertain, unstable and insecure and in which employees bear the risks of work (as opposed to businesses or the government) and receive limited social benefits and statutory protections

1. reproductive-material dimension

2. social-communicative dimension

3. legal-institutional dimension

4. status and recognition dimension

5. meaningful-subject-related dimension

• wages and job security

• associated with financial and material certainty about the future

• living wage: a wage level at which employees perceive and experience a step-change in their capability to enjoy meaningful organisational, personal and social lives

  • step out of poverty

  • lets them put money aside, more than just covering basic needs

• perception of a potential threat to the continuity of the current jobs

• hindrance stressor

• Flexible work contracts / casualization profoundly affects the person who suffers it: by making the whole future uncertain, it prevents all rational anticipation

• Integration into social networks at the workplace

• work-related aspects of communication

• labor law

• social security systems (health and pension insurance, company agreements)

• health and safety regulations at work

• possibilities for employee participation and co-determination

• opportunities for additional training and career promotion

  
  

• recognition from work (rocognized and valued by personally relevant people)

• appreciation from work

• meaningfulness and fulfilment that people experience at and through work

• subjective experience of meaningfulness includes purpose, comprehension and significance, not external, but influenced by external factors (e.g. familiy)

• identification with work

Ideology: not only explicit, intentional attemps but also lesser known, invisible understandings of the social order itself

Neoliberalism: political-economic ideology which postulates that to enhance human well-being, it is necessary to maximize individual economic freedom in society

• political logic (core roles and understandings of an ideology): instrumentality, individualism, competition

• social logic (how ideology manifests in concrete practice in workplace, how people enact norms): Business case (every action of business should contribute to competitiveness of organisation), individualization, decline of labour agreements, contracts, quantitative assessment, control and monitoring

• fantasmic logic: Freedom fantasy, meritocracy(success is based on own willpower), social darwinism, growth and progress

a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption

vigor: high levels of energy and mental resilience while working

dedication: being strongly involved in one’s work and experiencing a sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride and challenge

absorption: being fully concentrated and happily engrossed in one’s work, time passes quickly and difficulties with detaching oneself from work

physical, psychological or organizational conditions of work which

• enable the achievement of work goals

• reduce stressors at work and the associated negative consequences (e.g.strain)

• enable further development, learning and personal growth at work

Organisational: Autonomy and participation

Social: Social support by colleagues and supervisors, appreciation, good team climate

Individual: self-efficacy, self-control, meaningfulness, optimism, skills, knowledge

At organizational level: Participation (having a union)

At level of work task:

• decision-making autonomy (job control)

• work-methods autonomy (job control)

• work-scheduling autonomy (time control)

Three pathways: Direct, indirect, moderating effect

Direct: basic need for control, explains effects on positive outcomes such as job satisfaction, less on health impairments (e.g. psychosomatic complaints)

Indirect: avoidance of stressors is possible, e.g. passing on the task, doing it later

Moderating effect: Appraisal changes, coping options are available

Possible negative effects:

• if a person is responsible for problematic work outcomes

• in case of excessive demands

• well established main effect

• inconsistent findings for interaction effects according to JDC by Karasek

Reasons:

• type of autonomy and job stressors need to correspond

• personal characteristics may play a role in making use of autonomy

• dependent variables need to correspond (often strain variables instead of motivational factors are measured)

sources: supervisors, colleagues (friends, family, spouse)

Four types of social support:

• emotional, appreciative:

  • emotional (empathy, caring)

  • appraisal (information that is useful for self-evaluation)

• instrumental; problem solving

  • Infomational (advice, information)

  • Instrumental (tangible support)

Problem related:

• understand a problem better

• solve or alleviate a problem

Person related:

• feel sympathy

• appreciation

• not alone

• reminds that you have qualities

Meta-analysis shows that instrumental support has the strongest effect on physical health BUT because most people see instrumental support as emotional support

Matching hypothesis:

• instrumental: important if a situation can be controlled

• emotional: important when there is a lack of control

Three pathways: Direct, indirect, moderating effect

Direct: Basic need for belonging

Indirect: reduction of stressors mainly through instrumental (problem solving) support)

Moderating effect: appraisal changes, coping options are available

Possible negative effects:

• exchange about problems can emphasize them

• social support is not always offered in an acceptable way

• obligations of having to return the help

• supporters dramatise the situation to justify their assistance and/or to increase their self-esteem

Research question: Does the relationship between job resources and strain differ between workers with and without an immigrant background?

Result: Differential Effect:

• Autonomy only a resource on strain in non-immigrant group

• Social support from supervisors only serves as a resource for employees WITH migration background

Overall explanations:

• cultural differences (individualistic vs. collectivistic)

• previous work experience (more top down, autonomy not seen as resource?)

• different expectations

Buffering effect of job control is not always confirmed

P-E-Fit Model:

• buffering effect can be expected if there is a fit between high levels of job control at work and individual capabilities to use job control

• misfit exists whn there is a high degree of job control but a low need or lack of capabilities to use job control

Self-efficacy, Work stressors, autonomy etc was measured

Job control only had a buffering effect for people with high self-efficacy

Self-efficacy low: no effect / buffer, same for internal locus of control

new way of working in today’s society in the global and digital age

Frithjof Bergmann (1930-2021) founder of new work movement:

• autonomy, freedom and participation in the community

• promote creativity and personal development

• meaningful work that contributes to the society

This is the ideal way, not up to date

• Individualisation (attend to individual needs, work-life balance, combination with care responsibilies)

• Modularisation (parts of Airbus produced in Hamburg, focus there is only on these parts)

• Flexibilisation

• working time

  • influence of timing of working hours (WHEN)

  • influence duration of working hours on daily/weekly basis (HOW LONG)

• work location

—> enabled due to technological inovations (ICT - mobile devices, internet)

• performance

• collaboration at work

—> use of ICT increases expectation of being available outside regular working time

Condition in which employees

• are officially not working

• but are there for supervisors, client, colleagues

• others explicitly or implicitly expect that an employee responds when being contacted

Disruption of the cycle of work and recovery though extended availability

Three measurement points, each two months apart

Positive effect of work availability during off-time on emotional exhaustion

Mediation from extended work availability during off-time on emotional exhaustion via work to family conflict (positive) and psychological detachment (negative)

extended availability on the day before

• correlates negatively with energy levels the next morning

• lead to increased cortisol levels

• impairs perceived control over nonwork activities

ICT use during off-time: associated ith higher Work-Life conflict

Smartphone use in the late evening: leads to exhaustion nd lower work engagement

Recovery refers to a process during which individual functional systems that have been called upon during a stressful experience return to their prestressor levels

2 levels:

1. physiological

2. psychological

Fatigue: Need for recovery

sympathetic and neuroendocrine systems are activated

higher cortisol release, blood pressure, heart rate, lower heart rate variability (HRV)

• no longer exposed to stressor: parasympathetic system is activated and the sympathetic system is shut down

• lower blood pressure, higher HRV

• unwinding —> arousal returns to baseline level

• recovery as a process to “replenish” (fill up) depleted sources

• takes place (almost automatically) when the person is no longer exposed to job stressors (during breaks, after work, at weekends)

• occurs when demands do not target the same functional level as during work

• relaxation (walk, reading, yoga)

• psychological detachment (mentally switching off from work, physically being away, not available)

• mastery (learn new competencies, refining existing skills)

• control (targeted and active planning of leisure activities like “I decide my own schedule”

results follow

233 university employees were interviewed about

• recovery experiences during vacation

• emotional exhaustion after vacation

• workload after vacation

measurement times: before, during, 2 days and two weeks after vacation

Results:

• after 2 days:

  • negative work reflection and non-work hassles correlate positively with exhaustion

  • mastery: negative correlation

  • relaxation: no effect

• after 2 weeks: no big effects

Mirco-breaks are short, informal recovery activities done voluntarily between tasks

Micro-Breaks

• no between-person effect of micro-breaks on fatigue and vitality (maybe bc it affects future break behavior)

• significant within-person effect: less fatigue and more vitality through micro breaks

Work-related activity

• more vitality within-person (nicht unbedingt gut, man kommt nicht runter)

Participants fill out questionnaire after each break during one week

Outcome as expected, only Timing of Break now negatively correlated

Conscious and goal-oriented exertion of influence on people (i.e. followers)

distinction:

• structural leadership: through incentive systems, regulations or legal systems

• personal leadership: through people

Task orientation: task-related organisation and structuring, activation and control of employees

Employee orientation: trust, friendliness, respect for the employee

—> best leadership style if both is high

empirical evidence:

• rational exchange concept

• performance-related reward behaviour: if an employee shows the desired performance, he/she receives a corresponding gratification

• leader transforms followers in their behaviour and the way they see themselves

• employees support the goals of the leader as they believe in them

• leader is a role model, provides inspiration, trust, respect, considers individual needs of employees

—> builds on the normal effort of employees and increases, i.e. transforms it info an extra effort using 4 techniques

1. idealized influence (charisma)

2. inspirational motivation (artiulate)

3. intellectual stimulation (providing autonomy, participation)

4. individualized attentions (“care” part, what do employees need?)

• positive correlations with satisfaction and motivational indicators

• correlations with performance indicators are also positive, but lower

• good for wellbeing

a lot of development and support = good

overtaxing = bad

what matters most: changing the working conditions: lasts longer

• 31% of surveiyed leaders see themselves as being at high or partial risk for burnout

• risk group: young leaders at middle management (inexperienced, sandwich position)

• 26% believe that burnout is a sign of high commitment and socially acceptable among leaders

• seen as weakness by 41%

• provide them with knowledge on mental illnesses to recognize burnout etc.

• provide with knowledge on how working conditions and strain are related

• provide with knowledge on how to craft demands and resources for employees so that they are protective for employee health

• inform leader about support services for those showing health impairments

• treat and educate leaders as (co-)designers of work tasks and working conditions

• training in how to lead difficult conversations (how can employees be approached regarding sensitive issues

• train leaders on how to activate and strengthen the resources of their employees

• train leaders on how to challenge and encourage employees without overwhelming them

• consider role model function of the leader

• begin with self-care before turning to health-oriented leadership that targets employees

• people spend a lot of time at work

• work itself influences physical and mental well-being

• spillover effects on private life

• people are available through organisations

Availabilit via smartphones in the evening impairs well-being during intensive smartphone use

screenshot: during baseline week, we see interaction of availability and technology-related pressure on psychological detachment

Comparison of mean scores pre/post intervention week: no effects on emotional exhaustion,

small but significant effects on work engagement, psychological detachment and relaxation

Concept: Randomized intervention / control group design

Baseline and intervention week vs. control group (questionnaire in beginning and end)

Intervention: Offtime-App + Health tips

Mindfulness is a state of nonjudgmental attentiveness to and awareness of moment-to-moment experiences.

From theoretical POV, it is expected to play a relevant role in physical and psychological health as well as task performance.

Study aim: explore effect of state and trait mindfulness on emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction

Results:

Before intervention:

• Trait mindfulness has effect on emotional exhaustion and small effect on job satisfaction

• Daily mindfulness has effect on both

Intervention: 2 a day small intervention for 10 work days

• significant within and between results on mindfulness and emotional exhaustion

• also effect on daily basis

Positive thinking is a cognitive strategy that promotes optimistic thinking and positive reflection on happy events and experiences

Goal: Effectiveness of a daily positive-thinking intervention at work on well-being outcomes

Emotional exhaustion and Fatigue were being measured, Pre, Post and Follow-Up

Results: significant within and between effects, still at follow-up questionnaire

More effective for people with high need for recovery

Daily thinking intervention for 10 days, within group comparison, no control group

positive effects on well-being measures

• stress experience

• physical complaints

• mental health

• switching off from work

no effect on physiological measures

small effect sizes

direct effect: 2 (die schon vorgestellt)

moderator effect:1

null effect: 1

• Manipulation check

• closer look at mechanisms

• align interventions with needs of target group

• include alternative interventions and control groups

• large samples (>100 per group)

• consider moderators (esp. at individual level)

• consider duration: 2 weeks or longer

• measure long-term effects (after several months)

content and organization of one’s work tasks, activities, relationships and responsibilities

1/3

• higher level of job satisfaction, work engagement and organizational commitment

• lower level of burnout

• further: increase in learning and professional development, mental and physical health

• very specialized jobs

• skill shortage

• more diverse jobs with high levels of complexity and insecurity

—> well-designed jobs are needed to handle these challenges

• using a variety of skills, abilities etc

• complete and meaningful tasks

• seeing contribution to overall results

• autonomy

• learning opportunities

• feedback through the job

• avoiding bore- and burnout

• social contacts

• avoiding repetitive and monotone tasks

Top-down: job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment, self-managing teams

Bottom-up: Job crafting

Job crafting —> intended changes without any agreement of others at work

• physical and cognitive changes individuals make in their task or relational boundaries of their work

• employees change their levels of job demands and job resources in order to align them with their own abilities and preferences

introducing new work tasks that better suit my skills (form, scope, tasks change)

altering quantity and quality of relations at work

communicate less with people who do not fully support personal work objectives

finding personal meaning in tasks and responsibilities at work

trying to develop professionally

taking on extra tasks (Without extra salary)

trying to ensure that work is less emotionally intense

pretty similar effect for low and high crafting of social resources, but detrimental effect on moderate level!

unclear results, effects of approach and avoidance crafting are not black and white, results suggest its better to use both

approach crafting boosts and buffers

• job characteristics (e.g. job resources)

• individual differences (e.g. approach-avoidance motivation)

• motivational characteristics (e.g. work engagement)

• social context (e.g. leadership style)

• increase in overal job crafting, especially in increasing challenging demands and reducing hindering demands

• (small) increase in work engagement and contextual performance

• less evidence about changes in job resources and job demands

• No effecrts on increasing structural and social resources; task performance

• individual has the responsibility

• do not change the system / working conditions

—> organization / state does not take responsibility

• well being as attitude that can be trained —> leaves it to the individual whether they are sucessful or not

• positive thinking as a form of emotion labor that requires producing and showing positive emotions

• encourage individuals to change themselves and accept the situation instead of showing resistance

• “self-optimization” may hinder improving working conditions at the organizational and political level!

• regulates basic occupational heath and safety obligations of the employer, the obligations and rights of employees and the monitoring of occupational safety and health standards

• since 2013: mental health has been taken into account

• Arbeitssicherheitsgesetz: Durchführung einer Gefährdungsbeurteilung psychischer Belastung durch Fachkräfte für Arbeitssicherheit und Arbeitsmediziner*innen

• Betriebssicherheitsverordnung & Bundespersonalvertretungsgesetz: Maßnahmen des Arbeitsschutzes sollen durch den Betriebs- bzw. Personalrat gefördert werden

• Gemeinsame Deutsche Arbeitsschutzstrategie: Beschäftigte sollen in den gesamten Prozess der Gefährdungsbeurteilung psychischer Belastung eingebunden werden

Occupational health and safety management - Psychological health and safety at work - Guidelines for managing psychosocial risks

—> The organization should identify hazards of a psychosocial nature. These can include:

• preventive, settings-based approach to assess and improve psychosocial working conditions and work related well-being and motivation

Aim:

• Identify risks and resources

• Evaluate severity of health impairments through psychosocial risks

• derive interventions/solutions to protect workers

Methods:

• quantitative surveys

• interviews

• observations

• workshops

• secondary data analysis (absenteeism rates, injuries, illnessesn, registeres through health insurances)

good preparation is essential!

Involve all relevant partners!

1. Define jobs and/or work units

2. Assessment of psychosocial risks as work

3. Interpretation of results (and communication of results)

4. Development and implementtions of interventions

5. Evaluation of interventions

6. Documentation

Architechture: no open plan offices —> better shared-offices, home office, flexible working locations

—> affects collaboration, concentration, privacy and perceived control regarding personal space

Romm climate: temperature and ventilation —> fatigue and loss of performance with higher temperature

Acoustic environment: noise, music, conversations

—> conversations are most relevant stressor in open plan offices

—> music can evoke positive emoitons, have relaxing effects or be evaluated as disturbing noise

light: daylight vs. artificial light

—> high preference for daylight

—> artificial light has a high impact on the atmosphere within rooms (colour, brightness)

work tasks should

• provide autonomy, variability, complexity

• reduce monotony, repetitive tasks, workload

work design strategies:

• job rotation

• job enlargement

• job enrichment

—> psychological work design

EAP refers to programmes for employee counselling by an external company

Aim: Ensure stability, well-being and performance of employees by addressing their individual needs and problems (professional, orivate, health-related)

Who consults? Psychologists, psychotherapists, social workers

Study in Canada

absenteeism for EAP Users and Comparison Subjects: Before, During and After Treatment

—> absenteeism goes down with EAP Treatment, stays low after intervention

• commitment and support from top management

• clear, written set of policies and procedures that outline the purpose of the EAP and how it functions in the organisation

• close cooperation with local unions

• training of supervisors on their role in problem identification

• education of employees and promotion of EAP services to foster widespread utilisation thoughout the company

• continuum of care, including referral to community agencies and follow-up of each cas

• an explicit policy on confidentiality of employee information

• maintenance of records for programme evaluation purposes

• PAP are programmes for peer counselling within a company

• employees in the company are trained to adivse their colleagues or to support them in their search for help

• particularly suitable for: heterogeneous workforces (e.g. minority workers), low-skilled employees (they often dont think they will acutally receive help, dont trust HR)

• good work design

• further education and training programme

• sports programmes

• nutrition programmes

• day-care

• flexible working hours

• EAP or social counselling

Challenges:

• large differences between studies regarding conceptual framework/theory, focus on the intervention, evaluation methods, definition of constructs, intervention approach, samples etc.

• lack of comparability

• no participating companies/organizations

• Data on case studies and pre-/post comparisons easier to find

1. significant and specific well-being problem in target group

2. target group has relatively low levels of a particular resource

3. increasing the resource will in principle have significant effects on a well-being problem (we know that a specific resource is related to wellbeing)

4. an explicit theoretical mechanism explains how increasing the resource affects the specific well-being problem (connect theory and practice)

5. a reasonable time frame for assessing changes in the resource and well-being problem

6. no significant individual differences in intervention effectiveness (works well for all, not only e.g. old employees)

7. target group is split into three subgroups: intervention, alternative intervention, control group

8. no clear, strong, obvious indicators of the causes of the wellbeing problem that are unrelated to the resource-oriented intervention