Which sorts of texts are there in a drama?
secondary text (Nebentext) for stage directions
primary text (Haupttext) for direct communication among characters in dialogues
—> drama is more immediate than narrative texts
What is there to say about the performance on stage?
A theatrical performance on stage …
replaces the individual reader´s imagination as a site of realising the fictional dramatic world
Each performance is an unrepeatable, simultaneous and collective production and reception, in which actors play characters in fictional settings for spectators
—> unique event (spectators´response forms an essential part of the dynamics of a performance)
What can be said about the transmission of information between the characters and the audience?
gap between the external communication of the whole performance and the internal communication among characters on stage often leads to discrepant awareness
—> spectators and characters have different levels of information
What is the dramatic introduction for?
… establishes the situation, atmosphere and the relation to the audience, appealing to its attention.
What is the initial or isolated exposition for?
= presented in a prologue (before the play proper) or informative reports and dialogues in the first act
—> introduces some characters and gives the spectators the relevant context
What is an integrated exposition?
… reveals relevant information to understand the initial situation or the major problems in the course of the play
= feature brought to perfection in the “analytic drama”
What do Intentional irony and Dramatic irony express?
… expresses the opposite of what is meant.
… exploits the difference between external and internal communication because the spectators realise that a character is not aware of the implications and consequences of what he says or does.
—> does not always serve a comic purpose
What is dramatic speech based on?
… is based on ordinary language due to dramatic conventions and theatrical requirements —> but differs from it
has to communicate much information because it addresses both the characters on stage and the spectators in the theatre
lack of narrator
detailed stage directions
characters often introduce themselves and others, as well as topics and conflicts, in speech
—> As opposed to ordinary conversation, every word is meaningful
How can speech be analysed?
We can analyse the …
content (what)
form (how)
function (why)
… of an individual speech by itself and in relationship to the preceding and following speeches by the same character and others.
What is co-operative communication?
The norms for
… help to understand dramatic speech in general:
speakers should respect each other and tell the truth, give the adequate amount of information and say in a comprehensible way what is relevant to the matter at hand
—> reveals insecurity, incompetence, alienation, domination or deception
What can be said about coherence in speech?
—> the logical coherence within and between utterances (Äußerungen) is telling
character´s utterance can be well structured and logically coherent or rather chaotic and incoherent (due to a lack of knowledge, memory, confidence, self-control, health …
What about the quantity and style?
How many turns do defferent speakers take?
How long does someone speak?
Dominant characters are usually given more and longer speeches —> complexity, prominence, social power
Colloquial or formal language, limited or large range of vocabulary, simple or complex phrases, incomplete or complete sentences, incoherent and coherent utterances and dialogues …
The skills in language and communication can be rather limited or sophisticated.
Which functions of speech can be identified?
expressive
referential
appellative
= self-explanatory —> characters express their subjective emotions, attitudes or motives
phatic —> initiates or maintains contact between characters, e.g. in terms of minimal response (“mmh”)
metalingual —> reflects on language as a topic, e.g. in requests for explanations of what was said (“What do you mean?”)
poetic —> foregrounds language, such as its imagery, sound and rhythm
What is a line-by-line exchange?
… may convey passion or wit but also reticence (Zurückhaltung) and alienation (Verfremdung)
What are features of the absurd drama?
long pauses
short utterances and replies
—> skepticism in language as a means of communication
absurd world does not make sense
characters without a definite identity
coherent past or promising future
How is a monologue defined?
= a speech that is addressed to nobody on stage but expresses a character´s inner life to the audience
reveal information about onstage and off-stage situations, point to past events and expose plans, consequently creating suspense, sympathy or antipathy
—> a monologue is called a soliloquy if the speaking character is alone on stage
In which ways are speech and action connected?
—> interrelated in many ways
speech triggers off action
speech itself can be considered as action in general, and promises, apologies, requests, curses, condemnations etc. as performative speech acts in particular
conflicts are often enacted or performed in verbal struggles
What can be the conception of characters in dramatic texts?
flat or round (simple types or complex individuals)
static or dynamic (unchanging or developing)
transparent or opaque (fully explained, closed or enigmatic, open)
psychological or transpsychological (ordinarily or extraordinarily self-aware and perceptive)
What are examples for explicit authorial information and implicit authorial information?
… is given in telling names and in direct descriptions in the secondary text
… is conveyed in the structure of characters and relationships
What can be said about the constellation of characters?
Dramatic texts usually present a list of roles (dramatis personae), which ranks characters according to social position, generation and gender.
—> The number of dramatis personae is usually limited for pragmatic reasons
The performance unfolds a character´s relationship to others in a sequence of scenes with specific configurations of characters.
Where is the central conflict enacted?
The central conflict is enacted in the struggle between the protagonist and the antagonist or adverse circumstances
What can be said about story, plot, acts and scenes?
story sets the actions and events in chronological order
plot contains important structural elements, such as casual and other kinds of meaningful relationships, segmentation in phases, temporal and spatial regroupings …
acts are larger stages of the action and composed of scenes, which are marked by changing character configurations and situations
closed form of plot in five acts
exposition
complication
climax
reversal
catastrophe / dénouement
What basic forms of drama are there?
immediate presentation of characters
coherent and linear sequence of actions (plot)
human being as central agent
involves spectator´s feelings
narrative elements of presentation
loose sequence of scenes
circumstances tend to determine thought and action
appeals to reason and reflection
Unity of place, time and action
The three unities of one coherent action, one place and a performance time that comes close to the fictional time limit the scope plays
What did public theatres look like in Shakespeare´s time and afterwards?
large apron stage, surrounded on three sides by up to 3.000 spectators
the poverty of stage design and props was made up for by word scenery, characters´ descriptions of locales, which allowed fast changes of place
indoor theatres gradually separated the stage from the audience
private theatres had actors perform on the proscenium stage (VorderbĂĽhne) in front of a more or less elaborate setting on the scenic stage behind them
What are the fundamental genres of drama?
Tragedy
… is the mimesis or imitation of a serious, heroic and complete action through a direct representation on stage
> The noble character transgresses against the order
> Because of his misbehaviour / an error in judgement, the protagonist´s fortune turns from good to bad and often incurs the loss of several lives
> Tragic action incites terror because something like it may happen to us and invites pity because we empathise with the suffering hero
Comedy
… often stages ordinary people of the middle or lower classes as flat types with stereotyped forms of behaviour that may hold the mirror up to society for its pleasure or education
Comic characters reveal shortcomings, make mistakes, violate rules and are frustrated by failure.
The action is usually marked by stock elements, such as cross-dressing, deception, mistaken identities …
What comic subgenres are there?
… conceives romantic lovers, who are able to remove impediments to happiness, often with supernatural help, and a happy ending that includes almost everyone
… subject individual flaws and social vices to ridicule for the sake of the spectators´laughter, recognition and motivation to amend the problems
… is called for in order to drive the moral message home that virtue is rewarded and vice is punished
… was less strict in moralising than its predecessor, the comedy of humours
… celebrated sophisticated taste and manners, delighted in battles of wit and the sexes and in worldly pleasures as opposed to naivety, sobriety and hypocrisy
… combines serious conflicts or topics with light-hearted elements
What is special about epic drama?
… uses narrative techniques, such as a figure who introduces characters and conveys the action of the play to the spectators
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