What is social psychology ?
actual, imagined or implied presence of others
—> affect our thoughts,feelings and behaviour
What are snap judgements and the fundamental attribution error?
snap=immediate
fundamental attribution error —> giving situational influnces less value
What are actor/observer bias and self-serving bias?
Actor= own perspective —> personal situational experiences
observer= indirect perspective through others
—> misconception that only internal factors are at fault and situational factors are neglected or are counted as personality traits.
Being late because you know you had bad traffic.
someone being late and you consider them not reliable.
self-serving bias: its because of you if you succeed and because of other circumstances if you fail
What is hindsight bias?
Hindsight bias is the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon. After the outcome of an event is known, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome.
What is the difference between in-groups and out-groups?
Definition:
In-Group: Group where an individual feels belonging and identity.
Out-Group: Group to which an individual does not belong or identify.
Characteristics:
In-Group: Unity, similarity, loyalty.
Out-Group: Difference, separation, opposition.
Behavioral Effects:
In-Group: Favoritism, preferential treatment, solidarity.
Out-Group: Derogation, discrimination, hostility.
Social Dynamics:
In-Group: Enhances self-esteem, promotes group cohesion.
Out-Group: Potential for conflict, reinforces group boundaries.
Examples:
In-Group: Family, friends, co-workers, ethnic/national groups.
Out-Group: Competing sports teams, rival companies, different cultural groups.
What is the cocktail party effect?
The cocktail party effect refers to the ability to focus our attention on a particular person's voice amidst other voices and background noise.
What is inattentional blindness?
Inattentional blindness is the inability to perceive an object or a person in our surroundings. A notable example is that half of the observers failed to notice a gorilla in a ball passing game.
Differentiate between simple and complex attitudes.
Simple Attitudes: Single belief, clear, straightforward.
Complex Attitudes: Multiple beliefs, nuanced, conflicting components.
complex and simple attitudes describe the depth or intricacy of beliefs
What is the mere exposure effect?
Preference grows with familiarity.
Compare explicit and implicit attitudes.
Explicit Attitudes: Conscious, declared beliefs.
Implicit Attitudes: Unconscious, automatic reactions.
Explicit and implicit attitudes refer to conscious versus unconscious beliefs
What is cognitive dissonance?
Mental discomfort from conflicting beliefs, actions, or values.
What is social facilitation?
Better on simple tasks, worse on complex, with observers.
What is social loafing?
Reduced effort in groups compared to individual work.
What is groupthink?
Loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in groups.
How does being in a group affect individual decision-making?
Groups often make riskier decisions than individuals; the presence of others can lead to increased boldness and minimized personal responsibility.
causes:
Conformity: Individuals may align their opinions and decisions with group norms to fit in, even if it contradicts their private beliefs.
Group Polarization: Group discussions can lead to more extreme positions, with individuals adopting stronger stances than they might individually.
Groupthink: In tight-knit groups, the desire for harmony and conformity can suppress dissent, reduce appraisal of alternatives, and lead to poor decision outcomes.
Social Facilitation: Presence of others can enhance performance on simple tasks but may impair it on complex tasks due to increased arousal.
Social Loafing: Individuals may exert less effort in a group setting than when working alone, relying on others to carry the load
What are normative and informational influences?
Normative Influence: Conforming to gain acceptance or avoid social rejection.
Informational Influence: Conforming based on others' actions as information or guidance.
What is the frustration-aggression principle?
frustration—> aggression
What is the bystander effect?
more people—> less people take action in times of needs
less people —> more people take action in times of needs
What is the function of memory in the nervous system?
Memory in the nervous system serves to store, retain, and recall information and past experiences, essential for learning, decision-making, and adaptive behaviors.
What are the three stages of memory?
Encoding: Processing information into a memory format.
—>Storage: Retaining information over time.
—>Retrieval: Accessing and using stored information.
What roles do selective attention and change blindness play in memory?
Selective Attention: Filters what information we encode into memory.
Change Blindness: Missing changes due to unattended details; affects memory accuracy.
—>selective attention and change blindness illustrate how memory is not a perfect recording of events but rather a selective and constructed representation influenced by what we pay attention to and what we overlook.
Describe the different memory storage systems.
Sensory Memory: Brief retention of sensory information (milliseconds to seconds).
Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds information temporarily for processing (seconds to minutes); limited capacity.
Long-Term Memory (LTM): Durable, potentially limitless storage of information; includes explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) memories.
Explain the primacy and recency effects in memory.
Primacy Effect: Better recall of early list items.
Recency Effect: Better recall of later list items or what you read as last.
What are the types of long-term memory?
Explicit Memory (Declarative): Memories you can consciously recall, such as facts and events.
Implicit Memory (Non-declarative): Memories that are unconscious and expressed through performance, such as skills and tasks.
Which brain regions are associated with memory?
Hippocampus: Essential for forming new memories.
Amygdala: Involved in emotional memories.
Cerebral Cortex: Stores long-term memories.
Cerebellum: Important for procedural memory.
Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in retrieving memories and processing information.
What is long-term potentiation?
Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a durable increase in synaptic strength following high-frequency stimulation of a synapse, crucial for learning and memory.
What is memory consolidation?
converting short-term memories into long-term storage
How are memories retrieved?
through triggers that give signals for recollection of information from the storage.
What is prospective memory?
Remembering to do things in the future.
What is memory distortion?
Recalling information inaccurately because of emotions(internal) and situational factors(external)
How do neurotransmitters influence our behavior?
Neurotransmitters transmit signals between neurons, influencing mood, cognition, and behavior.
serotonin affect mood
dopamine influences motivation and reward
cortisol stress response
endorphins pain reduction and reward
What are the main divisions of the brain?
cerebrum=forebrain
—>(associated with complex cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor functions)
cerebellum=hindbrain
—>(regulates autonomic functions, relaying information between the brain and the body, balance, and coordination)
brainstem=midbrain
—>(associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation)
How do the right and left hemispheres of the brain differ?
Left: Language, logic.
Right: Creativity, visual-spatial.
What are the differences between the somatic and autonomic systems?
Somatic: Voluntary control of skeletal muscles.
Autonomic: Involuntary control of smooth muscles, glands, and internal organs.
What causes aggression, according to the frustration-aggression principle?
How does the endocrine system influence behavior?
hormones affect behaviour
What is working memory?
Working memory holds and manipulates information for cognitive tasks.
What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination? Provide examples.
Prejudice is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual's membership of a social group. Discrimination is the behavior or actions, usually negative, towards an individual or group of people, especially on the basis of sex/race/social class, etc. For example, prejudice may involve harboring negative stereotypes about a racial group, while discrimination could manifest as denying employment based on race.
How does the bystander effect explain the reaction of people in emergencies?
What are the types of long-term memory mentioned?
Explicit and implicit memory.
How is information organized in long-term memory?
Information in long-term memory is organized by meaning, associations, and personal experiences.
What are context-dependent and state-dependent memories?
Context: Recall in same place.
State: Recall in same mental state.
What tools might help with prospective memory?
Calendars, reminders, alarms.
What are the different types of memory distortions?
bias and reconstruction
What roles do specific neurotransmitters play in mental activity and behavior?
Serotonin: Emotions, impulse.
Dopamine: Reward, motivation.
Endorphins: Pain, pleasure.
What are the specific functions of the brain's divisions?
Forebrain (Cerebrum): Complex cognition, emotions.
Midbrain: Vision, hearing, arousal.
Brainstem: Autonomic functions, vital reflexes.(considered as part of the mainbrain)
Hindbrain (Cerebellum): Balance, coordination.
Difference between simple/complex and implicut/explicit attitudes.
Explicit and implicit attitudes refer to conscious versus unconscious beliefs, while complex and simple attitudes describe the depth or intricacy of those beliefs
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