Session 2

1: from inside perspective (ask natives)

2: from outside perspective (some experts, analyse information that we have)

Social cognitive career theory

Impact of values

Etic perspective was not fruitful (only 16% could be explained with etic)

*CultureBank: An Online Community-Driven Knowledge Base Towards Culturally Aware Language Technologies

Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)

What is it? Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) is a framework that explains how people develop career interests, make choices about their careers, and achieve success and satisfaction in their work. It was developed by Robert Lent, Steven Brown, and Gail Hackett, and it is based on Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory.

Key Components:

1. Self-Efficacy Beliefs:

   • Definition: Your belief in your ability to perform specific tasks or achieve goals.

   • Example: If you believe you are good at math, you might feel confident about pursuing a career in engineering.

2. Outcome Expectations:

   • Definition: What you expect to happen as a result of your actions.

   • Example: If you expect that becoming a doctor will be rewarding and make a positive impact, you might be motivated to pursue that path.

3. Personal Goals:

   • Definition: Your intentions to engage in certain activities or to produce certain outcomes.

   • Example: Deciding to apply for a graduate program in psychology because you want to become a psychologist.

Processes:

1. Developing Interests:

   • How It Works: Your interests in certain activities develop based on your self-efficacy and outcome expectations. If you believe you're good at something and expect positive outcomes, you're more likely to develop an interest in it.

2. Making Choices:

   • How It Works: Career choices are influenced by your interests, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and personal goals. You tend to choose careers where you feel competent and expect good results.

3. Achieving Performance and Satisfaction:

   • How It Works: Success and satisfaction in your career depend on how well your self-efficacy and outcome expectations match your actual experiences in your chosen career.

Why It Matters: SCCT helps explain why people choose certain careers and how they can be supported in their career development. It emphasizes the role of confidence and expectations in career choices and success.

Schwartz Value Model

What is it? The Schwartz Value Model is a theory that identifies universal human values and explains how they influence behavior. Developed by psychologist Shalom H. Schwartz, it identifies ten broad values that are recognized across cultures.

Ten Basic Values:

1. Self-Direction:

   • Definition: Independence in thought and action.

   • Example: Valuing creativity and freedom.

2. Stimulation:

   • Definition: Excitement and challenge in life.

   • Example: Seeking adventure and novelty.

3. Hedonism:

   • Definition: Pleasure and sensuous gratification.

   • Example: Enjoying good food and leisure activities.

4. Achievement:

   • Definition: Personal success through demonstrating competence.

   • Example: Striving for ambitious goals and recognition.

5. Power:

   • Definition: Social status, control, and dominance over people and resources.

   • Example: Seeking leadership roles and authority.

6. Security:

   • Definition: Safety, harmony, and stability of society and relationships.

   • Example: Valuing family security and national security.

7. Conformity:

   • Definition: Restraint of actions and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations.

   • Example: Following rules and traditions.

8. Tradition:

   • Definition: Respect for and commitment to cultural or religious customs and ideas.

   • Example: Observing religious holidays and rituals.

9. Benevolence:

   • Definition: Preserving and enhancing the welfare of those with whom one is in frequent personal contact.

   • Example: Helping friends and family members.

10. Universalism:

    • Definition: Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the welfare of all people and nature.

    • Example: Advocating for social justice and environmental protection.

Value Structure:

• Dynamic Relations: The values are arranged in a circular structure, where adjacent values are compatible and opposing values are in conflict.

  • Example: Achievement and Power are adjacent and often compatible, while Benevolence and Power are opposite and often in conflict.

Why It Matters: Understanding these values helps in understanding human behavior and motivation. It can be applied in areas like marketing, organizational behavior, and intercultural communication to predict and influence actions.

Conclusion:

• SCCT explains how personal beliefs and expectations influence career development.

• Schwartz Value Model identifies core values that guide behavior across different cultures.

Both theories offer valuable insights into understanding human motivation and decision-making.

Many researchers “shoot somewhere and then paint the target” - We fail to define what we study → culture is complex

Cross-Cultural Research

What is it? Cross-cultural research involves comparing cultural practices, beliefs, and behaviors across different cultures. It aims to identify similarities and differences between cultures and understand how cultural context influences human behavior.

Key Features:

1. Comparison: Researchers compare two or more cultures to identify cultural patterns and variations.

2. Cultural Context: Focuses on how different cultural environments shape people's behaviors, values, and attitudes.

3. Methodologies: Uses various methods such as surveys, observations, and experiments to gather data from different cultural groups.

Examples:

• Communication Styles: Studying how communication styles (e.g., direct vs. indirect) differ between cultures like the United States and Japan.

• Parenting Practices: Comparing parenting styles and their effects on child development in different cultures, such as in Western vs. Eastern societies.

• Workplace Behavior: Investigating how workplace norms and practices differ between cultures, like individualism in the U.S. vs. collectivism in China.

Why It Matters:

• Cultural Awareness: Helps increase understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity.

• Global Applications: Provides insights for global businesses, education, healthcare, and other fields to improve cross-cultural interactions and effectiveness.

Intra-Cultural Research

What is it? Intra-cultural research focuses on variations and similarities within a single culture. It examines how subgroups within the same culture differ or align in terms of beliefs, behaviors, and practices.

Key Features:

1. Within-Culture Variation: Looks at differences among subgroups within a single culture (e.g., regional, ethnic, socioeconomic groups).

2. Subcultural Differences: Investigates how subcultures within a larger culture maintain unique characteristics while sharing a common cultural background.

3. Detailed Focus: Often provides a deeper understanding of the complexities within a single cultural context.

Examples:

• Regional Differences: Studying how people in different regions of the same country (e.g., North vs. South in the U.S.) differ in their lifestyles, dialects, and attitudes.

• Ethnic Groups: Examining differences and similarities among various ethnic groups within a country, such as Hispanic, African American, and Asian communities in the U.S.

• Socioeconomic Status: Investigating how people from different socioeconomic backgrounds within the same culture experience life differently, including education, health, and career opportunities.

Why It Matters:

• Nuanced Understanding: Provides a more detailed understanding of the diversity within a culture.

• Policy and Practice: Helps policymakers, educators, and organizations tailor their approaches to meet the specific needs of different subgroups within a culture.

Comparing Cross-Cultural and Intra-Cultural Research

Scope:

• Cross-Cultural: Broad, comparing multiple cultures.

• Intra-Cultural: Narrow, focusing within one culture.

Focus:

• Cross-Cultural: Differences and similarities between different cultural contexts.

• Intra-Cultural: Variations and commonalities within a single cultural context.

Application:

• Cross-Cultural: Useful for global strategies, international relations, and understanding cultural diversity.

• Intra-Cultural: Valuable for addressing issues specific to subgroups within a society, such as regional policies or targeted social programs.

Methodologies:

• Both types of research can use similar methods (surveys, interviews, observations) but applied to different scopes (multiple cultures vs. within one culture).

Conclusion:

• Cross-Cultural Research helps us understand how different cultural environments influence human behavior and interaction.

• Intra-Cultural Research provides insights into the diversity and complexity within a single culture.

Both approaches are crucial for a comprehensive understanding of cultural dynamics and can inform practices in education, business, healthcare, and beyond.

Clifford Geertz's Interpretive Concept of Culture

Who is Clifford Geertz? Clifford Geertz was an American anthropologist known for his work in symbolic and interpretive anthropology. He believed that culture is a system of symbols and meanings that people use to make sense of their world.

Key Ideas of Geertz's Concept of Culture

1. Culture as "Webs of Significance"

• What It Means: Geertz described culture as "webs of significance" that humans have spun and in which they are suspended. This means that culture is made up of the symbols, meanings, and interpretations that people create and share.

• Example: Think of culture like a spider web. Each strand represents different symbols and meanings (like language, rituals, and traditions) that are interconnected and give shape to the overall web (the culture).

2. Culture as Public and Shared

• What It Means: Culture is not just something inside people's heads; it's shared and visible in public practices and symbols.

• Example: When people celebrate a holiday like Christmas, they engage in public practices (decorating trees, giving gifts) that represent shared cultural meanings.

3. Thick Description

• What It Means: Geertz introduced the idea of "thick description," which involves describing not just the behavior but also the context and meaning behind it.

• Example: Instead of just noting that someone winked, a thick description would explain the social context (like a secret joke between friends) and what the wink signifies in that context.

4. Interpretive Approach

• What It Means: Geertz believed that to understand a culture, anthropologists should interpret the meanings behind people's actions and symbols, much like reading and interpreting a text.

• Example: An anthropologist studying a Balinese cockfight would look beyond the event itself to understand its cultural significance, like how it reflects social status and rivalry.

Why It Matters

Understanding Culture Deeply:

• Geertz's approach helps us understand the deep meanings behind cultural practices, not just the surface behaviors. It's like looking at the story behind a painting, not just the colors and shapes.

Cultural Context:

• By focusing on context and interpretation, Geertz's method allows us to see how people in different cultures create and share meaning, making their world understandable and meaningful to them.

Symbolic Interaction:

• It shows that culture is created through the interactions of people and their shared symbols, which can include anything from language and art to rituals and social norms.

Example to Illustrate

Imagine you are observing a traditional dance in a village:

• Thin Description: The villagers are dancing in a circle, wearing traditional costumes.

• Thick Description: The dance is performed during a harvest festival, symbolizing gratitude for a good harvest. The costumes represent historical figures, and the circle formation signifies community unity. The dance is a way for the villagers to connect with their ancestors and reinforce their cultural identity.

Summary

Clifford Geertz's interpretive concept of culture emphasizes understanding the deep meanings and symbols that make up a culture. By using thick description and focusing on the interpretive process, we can appreciate how people in different cultures create shared meanings that shape their world. This approach highlights that culture is a rich tapestry of interconnected symbols and practices that give life its meaning.

Deterministic View of Culture

What is it? The deterministic view of culture suggests that culture shapes and controls people's behavior in a strict and predictable way. It implies that individuals' actions and thoughts are largely determined by the cultural environment they are part of.

Key Features:

1. Cultural Rules: People follow specific rules and norms set by their culture.

2. Predictable Behavior: Behavior can be predicted based on cultural background.

3. Limited Agency: Individuals have limited freedom to act outside their cultural norms.

Examples:

• Behavior Patterns: In a deterministic view, if a culture values punctuality highly, individuals from that culture are always on time because they are conditioned by their cultural norms.

• Gender Roles: If a culture has strict gender roles, individuals will behave according to these roles because their behavior is determined by cultural expectations.

Why It Matters:

• Simplicity: This view simplifies the understanding of human behavior by attributing it to cultural factors.

• Criticism: It can be criticized for being overly simplistic and not accounting for individual differences and personal agency.

Interpretative View of Culture

What is it? The interpretative view of culture, associated with anthropologists like Clifford Geertz, suggests that culture is about the meanings and symbols that people create and share. It emphasizes understanding culture from the perspective of the people within it, focusing on how they interpret their world.

Key Features:

1. Meaning and Symbols: Culture is seen as a system of shared meanings and symbols.

2. Contextual Understanding: Understanding behavior requires interpreting the context and the meanings behind actions.

3. Human Agency: Individuals actively create and interpret cultural meanings, showing more personal agency.

Examples:

• Cultural Practices: In an interpretative view, a traditional wedding ceremony is not just a ritual but a meaningful event that expresses cultural values and personal emotions.

• Communication: A wink might be interpreted differently in various contexts, depending on shared cultural meanings (e.g., as a joke, a secret signal, or flirtation).

Why It Matters:

• Depth: This view provides a deeper understanding of culture by looking at the meanings behind behaviors.

• Complexity: It acknowledges the complexity of human behavior and the active role people play in creating and interpreting culture.

Comparing Deterministic and Interpretative Views

Focus:

• Deterministic: Emphasizes how culture controls and predicts behavior.

• Interpretative: Emphasizes understanding the meanings and symbols within a culture.

Agency:

• Deterministic: Individuals have limited freedom; their behavior is largely controlled by cultural norms.

• Interpretative: Individuals have significant agency; they actively create and interpret cultural meanings.

Method:

• Deterministic: Often uses quantitative methods to identify patterns and predict behavior.

• Interpretative: Uses qualitative methods like ethnography and thick description to understand cultural meanings.

Perspective:

• Deterministic: Looks at culture as a set of rules and norms that determine behavior.

• Interpretative: Looks at culture as a dynamic system of meanings created and shared by people.

Examples to Illustrate

Deterministic View Example:

• Social Norms: In a culture where respect for elders is a strict norm, children always show deference to older people because they are conditioned by cultural expectations.

Interpretative View Example:

• Religious Rituals: A religious ceremony is not just a set of prescribed actions but a rich, symbolic event that participants interpret as a connection to the divine, community, and tradition.

Summary

• Deterministic View of Culture: Suggests that culture controls and predicts behavior, with limited personal agency.

• Interpretative View of Culture: Focuses on understanding the meanings and symbols within a culture, with individuals actively creating and interpreting these meanings.

Both views offer valuable insights into how culture influences human behavior, but they approach it from different angles – one seeing culture as a controlling force, the other as a dynamic system of shared meanings

Alexander Thomas was a prominent psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of cross-cultural psychology. His work focuses on understanding how cultural differences influence human behavior and interactions. Let's delve into some key concepts associated with Alexander Thomas.

Alexander Thomas's Concept in Cross-Cultural Psychology

1. Cultural Standards:

• Definition: Cultural standards are the implicit and explicit rules that guide behavior and expectations in a given culture.

• Key Points:

  • These standards dictate what is considered appropriate or inappropriate in various contexts.

  • They shape how people interact with one another and how they interpret behaviors.

  • Understanding cultural standards is crucial for effective cross-cultural communication and interaction.

2. Cultural Dimensions:

• Definition: Cultural dimensions refer to the various aspects that can be used to compare and contrast different cultures.

• Key Points:

  • These dimensions help in understanding the deep-seated values and norms that underpin cultural differences.

  • Examples include individualism vs. collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity vs. femininity.

3. Intercultural Competence:

• Definition: Intercultural competence is the ability to effectively and appropriately interact with people from different cultural backgrounds.

• Key Points:

  • It involves understanding and respecting cultural differences and being able to communicate and behave in a way that is culturally sensitive.

  • This competence includes knowledge, skills, and attitudes that facilitate successful cross-cultural interactions.

Practical Applications of Alexander Thomas's Work

1. Cross-Cultural Training:

• Thomas's concepts are often used in training programs designed to prepare individuals for living and working in multicultural environments.

• These programs focus on increasing awareness of cultural standards and developing intercultural competence.

2. International Business:

• Understanding cultural dimensions and standards can help businesses navigate the complexities of international markets.

• It aids in building effective global teams, negotiating with partners from different cultures, and creating marketing strategies that resonate with diverse audiences.

3. Education:

• In educational settings, Thomas's work can help educators develop curricula that are inclusive and respectful of cultural diversity.

• It also supports teachers in managing multicultural classrooms and addressing the needs of students from various cultural backgrounds.

Example to Illustrate the Concepts

Imagine a multinational company planning to expand its operations to a new country. Using Alexander Thomas's concepts, the company might:

• Identify Cultural Standards: Learn about the local business etiquette, communication styles, and hierarchical structures in the new country.

• Analyze Cultural Dimensions: Assess how the new country's culture differs from the company's home culture in terms of individualism vs. collectivism, power distance, etc.

• Develop Intercultural Competence: Provide training for employees to develop skills for interacting with local colleagues, clients, and partners in a culturally appropriate manner.

Summary

Alexander Thomas's contributions to cross-cultural psychology provide valuable frameworks for understanding and navigating cultural differences. His concepts of cultural standards, cultural dimensions, and intercultural competence are essential tools for anyone working in a globalized world. By applying these concepts, individuals and organizations can improve their cross-cultural interactions, leading to more effective communication, collaboration, and mutual understanding.

Alexander Thomas's exploration of cultural standards is a key aspect of his work in cross-cultural psychology. Cultural standards are the implicit and explicit rules and norms that guide behavior and expectations within a particular cultural context. Let's delve deeper into the concept and its applications.

Cultural Standards According to Alexander Thomas

Definition: Cultural standards are specific to each culture and dictate what behaviors, actions, and attitudes are considered appropriate or inappropriate. These standards influence how people within a culture interact with each other and interpret various social situations.

Key Characteristics:

1. Implicit and Explicit Rules: Cultural standards can be both explicit (clearly stated or written) and implicit (understood without being openly expressed).

2. Context-Dependent: They vary depending on the context, such as family, work, or public settings.

3. Dynamic: While cultural standards are relatively stable, they can evolve over time due to influences such as globalization, technological advancements, and social changes.

Exploration of Cultural Standards

1. Identifying Cultural Standards:

• Observation and Interaction: Understanding cultural standards often begins with observing interactions within the culture and engaging with local people to learn their ways of thinking and behaving.

• Interviews and Surveys: Conducting interviews and surveys with members of the culture can provide insights into the norms and expectations that guide their behavior.

2. Analyzing Cultural Standards:

• Behavioral Patterns: Analyzing recurring behavioral patterns helps identify the underlying standards that people follow in different situations.

• Socialization Processes: Examining how individuals are socialized into their culture (e.g., through family, education, and media) reveals the transmission of cultural standards across generations.

3. Comparing Cultural Standards:

• Cross-Cultural Comparison: Comparing cultural standards across different cultures helps highlight both unique and common aspects. This can be done using frameworks like Hofstede's cultural dimensions or Trompenaars' cultural model.

• Intra-Cultural Variation: Within a single culture, there can be variations in standards based on factors like region, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and age group.

Applications of Cultural Standards

1. Intercultural Communication:

• Understanding Differences: By understanding cultural standards, individuals can better navigate intercultural communication, reducing misunderstandings and fostering positive interactions.

• Adapting Behavior: Being aware of different cultural standards allows individuals to adapt their behavior to be more culturally appropriate in diverse settings.

2. International Business:

• Effective Management: Managers in multinational companies can use knowledge of cultural standards to lead diverse teams more effectively and create a harmonious work environment.

• Negotiations and Partnerships: Understanding the cultural standards of business partners can improve negotiations and strengthen international partnerships.

3. Education:

• Inclusive Teaching: Educators can create more inclusive classrooms by recognizing and respecting the cultural standards of their students.

• Curriculum Development: Incorporating cultural standards into the curriculum helps students develop intercultural competence and global awareness.

Example to Illustrate

Imagine a scenario where a German company is expanding its operations to Japan. Using Alexander Thomas's concept of cultural standards, the company might:

1. Identify Cultural Standards:

   • Business Etiquette: Learn about the importance of formal greetings, exchanging business cards, and the hierarchical nature of Japanese business interactions.

   • Communication Style: Understand the indirect communication style in Japan, where people often use non-verbal cues and avoid direct confrontation.

2. Analyze Cultural Standards:

   • Decision-Making: Recognize that decisions in Japanese companies often involve a consensus-building process, which might differ from the more top-down approach in Germany.

   • Work Ethic: Observe the cultural emphasis on dedication, long working hours, and group harmony in Japanese workplaces.

3. Compare Cultural Standards:

   • Time Orientation: Compare the monochronic time orientation of German culture (punctuality, strict schedules) with the more polychronic approach in Japan, where flexibility and the completion of tasks take precedence.

Summary

Alexander Thomas's exploration of cultural standards provides a valuable framework for understanding the implicit and explicit rules that guide behavior within a culture. By identifying, analyzing, and comparing these standards, individuals and organizations can enhance their intercultural competence, leading to more effective communication, collaboration, and mutual understanding in diverse cultural contexts.