Name the four lobes in the cortex, their separating lines and one corresponding function
The human cortex consists of several layers. How many are there?
Please also roughly describe how a thalamic input is processed throughout the layers.
6 layer structure
I molecular layer - mostly neuropil
II extern granular layer - stellate cells
III extern pyramidal layer - small pyramidal cells
IV intern granular layer - stellate cells
V intern pyramidal layer -large pyramidal cells
VI multiform layer - multiple cell types
Explain the different in layer thickness of cortical layer IV between the sensory and the motor cortex (Which one is thicker and why?)
Layer IV = sensory layer, which has mostly sensory functions
-> processes info from Thalamus and passes it on to II & III
-> thicker in sensory cortex than in motor cortex
(vice versa in motor cortex layer V = motor layer thicker)
Plot the orientation tuning curve with example orientations for a cell designed to detect a vertical stimulus.
x-axis = degree of orientation
vertical stimulus: range [0°, 180°] with peak at 90°
( horizontal: e.g range [-90°, 90°] with peak at 0°
Assign to each frequency band one property
Delta
Theta
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta = deep sleep, coma
Theta = dreaming, meditation
Alpha = relexation, sleep spindles (memory processing)
Beta = active thinking, alterness, motor function
Gamma = high cognitive processing
How does the EEG change with anesthesia induction in terms of amplitude and frequency?
Anesthesia enhances inhibitory neural activity and reduces excitatory signaling in the brain, causing neurons to fire more synchronously but less frequently
-> higher amplitude
-> slower frequency
Place the state brain dead, vegetative state, coma, minimally conscious state, Locked-in Syndrome and normal in the coordinates below.
Name three tests that are performed for the assessment of brain death.
no motor reflex when painful stimuli is applied (e.g. on nail bed)
check brain stem reflexes (e.g. no response to light in eye)
Apnea test to check for spontaneous breathing
Please describe an experiment to demonstrate self-recognition in an animal.
Mirror test:
Place a mirror in front of an animal and see if it realizes that it sees its reflexion.
If you take into account that both mammals and birds are capable of cognitive behavior, what can be said about the necessary anatomical basis for cognition?
Neurons in cortical layer structure like in mammals is not relevant for cognitive behaviour bc neurons in the Nuclei of bilds are clusterd in tight groups instead.
Cognition likely arises from functionally equivalent neural circuits that support complex information processing, regardless of anatomical layout
Please describe what is meant by the term “reward/delay discounting” in human choice behavior.
= the longer the wait for the reward the less it is valued
-> undervalue future rewards bc of uncertainty/waiting
-> preference for quick payoff (over better longterm outcomes)
What part of the prefrontal cortex appears to suppress the fast decisions typical for irrational behavior?
the dorsolateral PFC
-> irrational decisions: amygdala
1. Which cortical area brings together external information, internal states and thus assigns the subjective value for a given situation?
2. Please describe some of the afferent projections that this area receives.
3. Which neurotransmitter seems to plays a decisive role in the attribution of subjective value?
orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)
Input from:
Amygdala: emotional and affective context
Sensory Cortex: external stimulus features (e.g. visual)
Hippocampus: memory and contextual information
Dopamine (by signaling reward prediction, motivation, and the relevance of stimuli)
Please describe the function of the two major outputs of the hypothalamic nucleus arcuatus when faced with a high leptin level.
low appetite: signals lower food intake to hypothalamus
increase energy expenditure (burn more calories) e.g with processes like heat production and physical activity: promote weight loss when fat stores
How does Anorexia nervosa differ from binge eating?
Which neurotransmitter systems of the brain appear to be dysregulated in Anorexia nervosa?
Anorexia nervosa = no eating (or not enough)
Binge Eating = overeating in phases
Decrease in dopamine (no reward feelings when eating)
Increase in Serotonin (causing increased anxiety and obsessive behavior)
Neuroanatomically, which reward circuits have been identified as main pathways mediating pleasure? Which neurotransmitter is involved?
Mesolimbic Dopamine Pathway:
event causing release of dopamine -> activates neurons in VTA
activates neurons in Nucleus accumbes
-> activates reward stimuli
activates neurons in PFC
-> forming memory of experience
Neurotransmitter: Dopamine
Name the mechanisms nicotine affects the reward system.
Nicotine causes increase of dopamine release
-> feeling of reward and reinforcing nicotine use
-> Over time, these effects contribute to addiction by strengthening reward pathways and creating dependence.
Tolerance and dependence as diagnostic criteria are major sources of conduction because they are not specific for addiction.
Name two drugs which can cause dependence and tolerance but do not necessarily produce addiction.
Beta-blockers (used for hypertension and anxiety)
Laxatives (used for constipation)
Which of the statements are wrong?
Acute drug administration modifies brain function (drugs hijack the natural reward system)
Substances which are both rewarding and positively reinforcing have the potential to induce a state of addiction
Repeated exposure of an addictive drug causes pervasive changes in brain function and persist long after individual stop taking the drug
Effects of chronic drug administration have been identified neither at cellular, nor at molecular, structural and functional level
An addicted brain does not differ from an non-addicted brain
changes in brain metabolic activity, receptor availability, gene expression and responsiveness to environmental cues are obvious in an addicted brain
4. & 5.
According to the current hypothesis, antidepressants exert their effects mainly by a final elevation of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine and serotonin.
These effects can be achieved via pharmacological interaction with different targets at a synapse.
Please name those targets/mechanisms we discussed in the lecture and assign one respective compound which acts according to that mechanism.
MAO antidepressants: Moclobemide
alpha2-receptors: Mirtazapine
re-uptake: TCA, SSRI
Antidepressants do not include a homogeneous class of psychotherapeutic agents. However, they all show 4 main therapeutical effects. Name at least three of them.
Mood elevation
Motivation and Energy
Sleep improvement
Reduced Anxiety
According to the current hypothesis dopamine is highly involved in the manifestation of schizophrenia. This is supported e.g., by the pharmacological profile of almost all neuroleptics. Which common target and pharmacological property (regarding binding affinity) of neuroleptics speaks in favor of the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?
Name at least three arguments.
Common Target: Dopamine D2 Receptors
Arguments:
Effect of Antipsychosis (standard AP = D2 Blockers where binding affinity proportional to effectiveness)
Post mortem brain examination of schizophrenia patients showed increased amount of DA receptors
Substances which increase DA level induce schizophrenic psychoses
NMDA receptors are playing a crucial role in the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) in the CA1 region of the hippocampus.
But the activation of NMDA receptors depends on another glutamatergic receptor. Please name that receptor and explain its role in the process of LTP.
= AMPA Receptors
Role:
-> Glutamate released from presynaptic membrane
-> bind to AMPA
-> activation -> intake of Na+
-> depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane
-> remove Mg+ block from NMDA receptor
-> intake of Ca²⁺ influx in postsynaptic membrane
-> LTP
AMPA receptors initiate depolarization → NMDA receptors open → Ca²⁺ enters → LTP is induced
Which of the following statement(s) is (are) wrong?
Head direction cells fire maximally when an animal’s head faces a particle direction in the horizontal plane.
Border cells pack the spatial representation in a hexagon pattern.
According to the current hypothesis, the idiothetic reference frame is the basis for the coordinative system of the hippocampal formation.
AP5 is an NMDA receptor antagonist and blocks the induction of LTP
The activity of NMDA receptors can be blocked by CA2+ inside the channel
LTP is hypothesized to be a cellular mechanism for learning and memory.
2.No grid cells
5.No Mg2+ blocks NMDA receptor
Name 3 patients and their physicians, scientists?
What regions of their brains were lesioned?
Louis Leborgne -> Pierre Broca
-> Speech Impairment (aphasia) due to damage in the Broca Area
Henry Molaison -> William Scoville/ Brenda Milner
-> removal of anterior temporal lobe/ Hippocampus, causing amnesia
Phineas Gage -> John Harlow
-> stick in PFC -> change in behavior and memory
What 3 axes are in the PFC and their functions?
medio-lateral axis (intro- and exteroceptive)
ventro-dorsal axis (what and where)
rostro-claudal axis (more or less abstract)
What part of the brain is so important to PFC that it is counted as a part of it?
= anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
-> role in integrating cognitive and emotional processes (= key functions of the prefrontal system)
Name the scientists and the method that worked on the single neuron firing with short term memory.
Scientists: Fuster and Alexander
Method: Single unit response recording in monkeys performing delayed response tasks
-> showed persistent activity
What are the differences between IPSP and EPSP at the postsynaptic membrane?
EPSP (Excitatory postsynaptic potential):
-> depolarization
-> positive ions flow into the postsynaptic neuron
-> more likely to generate action potential
IPSP (Inhibitory postsynaptic potential):
-> hyperpolarization
-> negative ions enter the postsynaptic neuron or positive ions leave the neuron
-> less likely to generate action potential
Brain death, coma, vegetative state, minimally conscious state, Locked in syndrom
How aware and arousable are patients in the different states?
x
a) Where are grid cells and place cells located?
b) Which two cell types influence grid cells and how?
c) Function of place cells
a)
Grid cells -> Entorhinal cortex
Place cells -> Hippocampus
b)
Head direction cells: direction of move
speed cells: speed of motion; provide the information to update grid cell firing
c)
Spatial orientation
Hedonic value of food
a) what happens when yummy food is always available?
b) how dynamic is the hedonic value of food and why is that useful for the animal?
less sensitive torwards reward
-> need more to reach reward feeling
-> energy imbalance & binge eating
Very dynamic and based on internal state (e.g. hunger, emotional state)
-> useful for Energy Efficiency, Nutrient Balance
-> need-based choices about what and when to eat (improving both survival and efficiency)
Define H.oeconomicus and describe how it differs from H. sapiens.
H.oeconomicus = theoretical person making rational choices
-> absolute preference which never changes
-> maximized utility & in pursuit of wealth/own interest
H. sapiens = decisions based on emotions
-> relative preferences with bias to risk & future
Difference between short term and working memory
Short Term Memory -> passive sensory trace and temporary storage
Working Memory -> short term memory + active manipulation for tasks like reasoning or decision-making
Theory of mind
a) Which experiment can be used to prove TOM
b) Which area is active during TOM
a) False Belief Task
e.g. A puts marble in box and leaves, B puts it somewhere else, if A searches for marble in box -> cognition bc thats where A last put it
b) Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ)
What is the framing effect? Which brain region is involved?
= putting decision into context, choices can be manipulated based on how info is presented
e.g. more likely to choose treatment with 90% survival rate than 10% mortality rate
-> Amygdala, with involvement of OFC and vmPFC for evaluating emotional and subjective value
Is the human cortex special? If yes, why?
Yes: Compared to other mammals (not to other primates) and birds, the human cortex is special with its six-layers which include a granular layer IV for fusing and integrating information. Additionally, the high number of forebrain neurons is highly relevant for complex cognition.
No: Cortex is not different to cortex in other primates.
Depression
a) Define re-uptake inhibition
b) What neurotransmitters are essential?
a) Normally: After a short time, leftover transmitters are going back into the pre-synapsis via autoreceptors.
Blocking: Transmitters are longer in the synaptic cleft --> increased effect
b) Dopamine, Serotonine, Norepinephrine
LTP
a) what was the first area it was described in?
b) which receptors are essential?
a) Hippocampus
b) NMDA & AMPA
Glasgow coma scale: Describe + Name the 3 Tests
= Scoring for damage in brain and if the patient is in coma or not.
Tests:
open eyes (spontaneously or stimulated),
verbal communication,
motor response
Layer 4
a) is L4 thicker in the sensor cortex or the motor cortex
b) why?
The layer IV is thicker in the sensor cortex than in the motor cortex, because there we need to integrate more input information.
a) Why is the enteric nervous system called little brain?
b) Where is it located?
c) How is it connected to the central nervous system?
a) independently control many digestive functions, has a complex network of neurons, and can operate without direct input from the central nervous system, much like a brain
b) gastrointestinal tract (gut)
c) via the autonomic nervous system
Which theories are there to describe the mechanisms behind working memory?
Persistent
Transient
Silent
Name all five cell types associated with spatial recognition
Place, grid, head direction, speed, border cells
Pathway of addiction: Which brain areas are involved and what neurotransmitters are essential?
VTA -> NAc -> PFC
Dopamine, GABA, Glutamate
Name 5 symptoms of the frontal lobe syndrome
damage of higher-order cognitive functioning,
dysexecutive syndrome,
failure to plan,
disturbance of working memory,
disturbance of language and speech production,
disturbance of social behavior
Define a psychotropic drug
chemical substances that change brain function and result in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness or behavior
e.g Prozac, an antidepressant that affects serotonin levels to improve mood
Which two afferents in the nucleus arcuatus follow a
a) high Leptin level?
b) low Leptin level?
a) α-MSH, CART
b) NPY, AgRP
Thinking about the differences between avian and mammalian brains, what is necessary for complex cognition?
Different architectures, but high number of neurons in the forebrain in common -> requirement for complex cognition
similar area: PFC & nidopallium caudolaterale
Draw the spike-orientation model and explain it
OR
Draw the spike-orientation curve and explain it
a) Which two neurons are part of the autonomous nervous system before reaching the organ?
b) Which NTs are present in para. and symp.?
c) Name one exception
a) pre- and postganglionic neurons
b) acetylcholine is present in both, epinephrine and norepinephrine only in sympathetic postganglionic neurons
c) sweat glands, part of the sympathetic dvision but uses only acetylcholine
Do rodents have a PFC?
Yes, a medial PFC but not a lateral (humans have both)
BUT: We should rather ask more functionally --> How do rodents solve complex cognitive tasks? It is the behavior, not the cortex that is selected by evolution
a) Which 2 different types of long-term memory can be distinguished?
b) What the difference in recalling them?
c) State the full name of the hippocampal memory cycle
d) Which kind of receptors are important regarding the CA1 area?
a) Explicit (declarative) and Implicit (nondeclarative)
b) Explicit: by concious effort, Implicit: unconciously
c) Papez Circuit (long term explicit memory):
Perforant path -> dentate gyrus -> Mossy fibers -> CA4 -> Schaffer collaterals -> C1
d) AMPA and NMDA
Link the drug to their function:
Benzodiazepine, Barbiturate, Nicotin, LSD, MDMA
Hallucinogen, stimulating, depressing, anxiolytic
Benzodiazepine: Anxiolytic
Barbiturate: Depressing
Nicotine & MDMA: Stimulating
LSD: Hallucinogen
a) Which is the basal mechanism behind the alleviation of positive symptoms through conventional antipsychotics?
b) What is the main side effect?
c) Name a therapeutic advantage of atypical antipsychotics and an advantage regarding side effects
a) Antagonising D2 receptor
b) EPS (extrapyramidal symptoms): most commonly caused by typical antipsychotic drugs that antagonize dopamine D2 receptors
c) Also targets negative symptoms, reduced occurance of EPS
Explain the vertical and the horizontal electrode penetration in the hypercolumn.
Vertical: neurons with the same preferred orientations.
Oblique or horizontal: systematic change in orientation across the cortical surface.
There is a lack of orientation-selective cells in layer IV (input layer).
What are the parameters of oscillation?
amplitude, phase, and frequency
Name 5 executive cognitive functions
Attention, (Working) memory, Temporal Integration, Planning, Decision-making, Inhibitory Control, Monitoring
Which drugs resemble which neurotransmitter?
Acetylcholin: nicotine
Noradrenalin/adrenalin: amphetamine, cocain, LSD
Dopamine: amphetamine, cocain, heroin, cannabis, LSD
Serotonin: amphetamine, cocain, LSD
Glutamate: AMPA, NMDA
GABA: alcohol, barbiturate
Histamine: opiates
Which neurotransmitter leads to which mood?
Acetylcholine: arousal, focused attention, promoting learning
Noradrenaline/Adrenaline: arousal, attention
Dopamine: pleasure, reward, motivation, curiosity
Serotonin: sedation, sleep and stress regulation, appetite, memory, sexual desire
Glutamate: excitatory
GABA: inhibitory, relaxation
Histamine: wakefulness, inflammation
The Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) is involved in psychosis. Which pathways target brain region and disease?
The mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways originating from the VTA target brain regions such as the nucleus accumbens and PFC --> dysfunction in these pathways is implicated in psychotic disorders, e.g., schizophrenia
Same side effects of antipsychotics and antidepressants?
drowsiness, dizziness, dry mouth, and gastrointestinal disturbances, Weight gain, Sexual dysfunction
Brainstem
a) What is part of the brainstem?
b) Which midbrain area is crucial in the development of Parkinsons?
a) Brainstem = Midbrain (Mesencephalon) + Pons + Medulla oblongata
b) Substantia nigra (pars compacta)
Brain oscillations
a) Which two wave oscillations are present during sleep and anaesthesia?
b) Are they intrathalamic or thalamocortical?
a) alpha & delta
b) thalamocortical
Define working memory
short term memory + actively manipulating information needed for reasoning, decision-making, and behavior
a) Re-uptake inhibition is the process by which a drug blocks the reabsorption of neurotransmitters into the presynaptic neuron, increasing their availability in the synaptic cleft.
b) serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.
Draw the Wernike-Gschwind model
pathway between areas : arcuate fasciulus
Garnular cortex
a) what is special about it
b) why is it so important for cognition
granular context = Isocortex
a) 6 layer structure with layer IV specialized for receiving sensory input in humans and primates
b) supports complex sensory processing forming the foundation for perception, attention, and higher-order thinking
Dopamine D2 receptor antagonism in the mesolimbic pathway
Extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) such as tremors due to blockage in nigrostriatal pathway
Therapeutic advantage: Better efficacy against negative symptoms and cognitive deficits.
Side effect advantage: Lower risk of EPS due to weaker D2 antagonism and additional serotonin receptor modulation.
b) which two cell types influence grid cells and how?
Grid cells are located primarily in the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC).
Place cells are located in the hippocampus, especially in the CA1 and CA3 regions
Head direction cells: Provide information about the animal’s direction/orientation, helping grid cells map spatial location relative to heading.
Speed cells: Encode the animal’s movement speed, influencing the scale and firing rate of grid cells for spatial navigation.
In signal detection theory, what would be the ratio of false negative vs false positive decisions of an ideal observer ?
false negative == false positive
Which part of the frontal lobe is not considered part of the prefrontal cortex?
primary motor cortex
How can the subjective value of an option be measured in humans?
behavioral choices (e.g., willingness to pay or delay),
neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI activation in valuation areas like the ventromedial prefrontal cortex),
psychophysiological signals (e.g., pupil dilation, reaction time)
What was Paul Broca‘s insight when he studied lesioned brains?
discovered that damage to a specific brain area (now called Broca’s area) in the left frontal lobe was linked to impaired speech production
-> localization of brain function
Name two basic cognitive functions and two executive cognitive functions
basic cognitive functions:
judgement
social behavior
attention
perception
Language comprehension
executive cognitive functions:
Working memory
Inhibitory control
Planning
Decision making
What general subdivisions does the forebrain of vertebrates have?
telencephalon + diencephalon
Who has the higher packing density of neurons in the forebrain – birds or mammals?
Birds with thight clusters of neurons (Nuclei)
What is the consequence if a mammalian cortex does not have laminae?
Losing cortical laminae disrupts complex processing like motor planning or cognition, but some basic functions like sensory processing can remain intact (depending on how severely the circuits are affected)
-> Guy and Steiger 2017
Which is the central brain hub region for body homeostasis?
hypothalamus
How does the body control the amount of reserve fat that is stored?
through leptin
-> secreted by fat cells
-> acts on the hypothalamus to regulate appetite and energy expenditure
-> fat store increase -> leptin increases -> appetite lowered & energy use increased
(and vice versa)
What is leptin, where is it produced, and where is its sensor?
= hormonal signal produced in fat cells/tissue with its main sensor is located in the hypothalamus of the brain
When your stomach “growls”… what signal is sent to the brain?
hormone ghrelin is released from the stomach and sent to the hypothalamus, signaling hunger and stimulating appetite
What is ghrelin, where is it produced, and where is its sensor?
= hormonal signal produced mainly in the stomach with its sensor location in the in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus
You just stagger out of an all-you-can-eat restaurant … what are the satiety signals that your body is frantically sending to your brain?
Overeating:
-> satiety signals sensored in hypothalamus and brainstem:
Leptin from fat cells (indicating long-term energy stores),
Insulin from the pancreas (reflecting rising blood glucose),
and reduced ghrelin levels (lowering hunger).
-> suppress appetite and promote feelings of fullness.
Please name some of the brain areas involved in the hedonic evaluation of food
Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) – assigns reward value based on taste, smell, and context
Insular cortex – processes taste and internal body states (interoception)
Amygdala – links emotional value to food
Nucleus accumbens – part of the reward circuitry that reinforces pleasurable food experiences
Hypothalamus – integrates hunger/satiety signals with reward evaluation
Ventral tegmental area (VTA) – releases dopamine in response to palatable food
Why does it make sense that the reward circuitry becomes less sensitive after ingestion of a particular food?
And why has that led to even more uptake of food in humans?
reward circuitry becomes less sensitive after ingesting a particular food to prevent overconsumption of the same stimulus
reduced sensitivity -> search for new or more intense rewards -> uptake of food -> overeating
Please give a short definition of a) anorexia nervosa, b) binge eating and c) bulimia nervosa.
= disorder causing to no or less eating/ starving themselves, due to distorted body image and fear of gaining weight, leading to dangerously low weight
= repeated overeating in phases with a loss of control
= disorder of binge eating, then taking extrem measures to not gain weight from the overeating (e.g. vomitting, fasting, excessive exercise)
What is meant by "tuning" of neuronal responses to particular stimulus features?
= phenomenon where a neuron responds most strongly to a specific stimulus feature (such as orientation, frequency, or direction) and less strongly to others
Which subcortical brain structure sends such strong projections to the prefrontal cortex (PFC) that it has become part of the criteria for defining the PFC?
Mediodorsal thalamus → subcortical, defines PFC by its strong projections
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