Vl18: Applications

Because there is no clear “before vs. after”, symptoms are long-standing, and more than one clinical session is usually required.

1. Egodystonic: traits conflict with the self and cause distress (e.g., OCD rituals, addictions).

2. Egosyntonic: traits are in harmony with the self and resist awareness (e.g., narcissistic or antisocial PD).

Approximately 7.8% worldwide. Prevalence is higher in high-income countries and likely underestimated due to diagnostic difficulties.

1. Age: symptoms emerge in adolescence

2. Culture: norms can encourage PD-like behaviors

3. Sex: women show more internalizing patterns; men more antisocial behaviors

PDs result from impaired identity development duebto process from Family group differentation, leading to identity diffusion, emotional instability, and interpersonal problems.

• Neurotic: integrated identity, repression, realistic Evaluation

• Borderline: identity diffusion,bdenial, projection, altération of Reality

• Psychotic: identity Delirium, protect from Self disintegration , lack of a Ila I of ability to check reality

Through biased information processing, such as hostility bias and distorted beliefs about self-efficacy and expectations.

PDs reflect rigid, maladaptive strategies shaped by biological factors, evolution, and early learning, leading to self-reinforcing interpersonal problems.

Tendency of circular thinking

1. Alarm

2. /Reward

3. Affiliation

4. Control

PDs are viewed as extreme and maladaptive variants of normal personality traits, experienced as egosyntonic.

1. Cluster A (Odd–Eccentric): Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal

2. Cluster B (Dramatic–Erratic): Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic

3. Cluster C (Anxious–Fearful): Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-Compulsive

1. Intrapersonal: identity, self-direction

2. Interpersonal: empathy, intimacy

• Negative Affectivity

• Detachment

• Antagonism

• Disinhibition

• Psychoticism

There are partial overlaps (e.g., Neuroticism ↔ Negative Affectivity), but correlations are generally moderate to low, and pathological traits often relate to multiple Big Five dimensions.

Antisocial, Narcissistic, Borderline, Obsessive-Compulsive, Avoidant, and Schizotypal PD.

1. Antagonism: manipulativeness, deceitfulness, callousness, hostility

2. Disinhibition: impulsivity, irresponsibility, risk-taking

• Antagonism: grandiosity, attention-seeking

• Marked lack of empathy and superficial intimacy

1. Negative Affectivity: emotional lability, anxiousness, separation insecurity

2. Disinhibition: impulsivity, risk-taking

3. Antagonism: hostility

1. Disinhibition (low end): rigid perfectionism

2. Negative Affectivity: perseveration

1. Detachment: withdrawal, intimacy avoidance, anhedonia

2. Negative Affectivity: anxiousness

1. Psychoticism: eccentricity, unusual beliefs, perceptual dysregulation

2. Detachment: withdrawal, restricted affectivity

3. Negative Affectivity: anxiousness

DSM clusters show weak empirical support, high within-cluster heterogeneity, and substantial overlap across clusters.

It combines functional impairment (self/interpersonal dysfunction) with pathological traits, offering a more valid and flexible framework.