• marked by -ly

• used to modify verbs

• 3 major exceptions (fast/hard/well)

• rich inventory of copula verbs cause problems

-> leaves questions why certain things go against rules

• inability to produce English phonemic distinctions (th & v/w) -> replaced by other sound

• inability to master distributional/phonotactic regularities in L2 -> final devoicing

• inability to produce target-language realisations on the subphonemic/allophonic level -> realisations of l and r

• in theoretical-linguistic framework -> moving towards language typology

• What are universals of human languages?

• What are limits of possible variability within languages?

• comprehension difficult -> omitting content

• conveys stereotypes (wanted & unwanted) -> communicative atmosphere

• everyday grammar really complex

• grammatical structures like icebergs -> important part is hidden

• as central part of language model

• how words combine into higher units

• mental representation of speakers’ mostly subconscious linguistic knowledge

• prescriptive grammar (good vs. bad) -> sociolinguistic processes of language standardization

• most align

• /θ/, /ð/

• /Ʒ/, /ʤ/

• /x/

• /pf/, /ts/

• /w/, /r/ (different)

• /ʏ:/ Mühle, /ø:/ Höhle

• /e:/ Mehl, /a/ Matte

• /æ/, /Λ/, /ə/ in RP

• many raising diphthongs align

• systematically organized systems in language usage

• words or sounds

• word stress: polysyllabic word -> Latin & Greek origin

• “weak forms” for grammatical function words -> articles, proouns, prepositions

• words run together in connected speech -> no glottal stop in syllable-initial prevocalic position

• intonation & rhythm

• four universal strategies

  1. linear order of words & constituents (a lot in English)

  2. inflection (more in German)

  3. grammatical function words (slightly more in English)

  4. intonation (slightly more in English)

• immense variability across languages

• subject

• complement of preposition in adverbial adjunct

  -> I struck him on his left leg

• complement of preposition in NP post-modification

  -> … the ulcer on his left leg

• noun phrase -> I didn’t see the chair.

• finite clause -> I can’t see that you’re tired.

• to-infinitive clause -> I want to go home.

• ordered hierarchy of phrases / constituents

• finite main clause (finite verb & can stand alone)

• finite subordinate clause (finite verb & cannot stand alone)

• non-finite subordinate clause (non-finite verb, no tense & no subject agreement)

• verbless clause -> their hands deep in their pockets

• question (ask to get constituent as answer)

• movement (restricted to type of constituent)

• cleft-sentence (It was the…)

• passivation (identifies object only)

• substitution (replace constituent with it or so)

  
  

• count noun -> the, a(n). two, one

• non-count noun -> some only plural or singular

1. determiner -> a

2. premodification -> very pleasant

3. head -> apartment

4. postmodification -> to live in

-> English as right-branching language (different than in German)

• English indefinite articles before nouns denote professions -> as a photographer

• German definite articles before generic plurals -> women find it vs die Frauen denken…

• German definite article with abstract nouns -> life in London vs. das Leben in London

interference

• (non) human distinction in wh-set of relative pronouns (who / which)

• punctuation -> (non) definiting relative clauses

over/underuse

• author whom I know -> author I know

• non-finite RC -> participle to shorten or infinitve to shorten & futurate/mpdal semantics

• objective time relation: event & moment of speaking

• inflectional vs. analytical (present vs. past)

  
  

• subjective view on internal structure of action, state or process

• simple vs. past progressive

• grammatical cline: words gradically change from lexical to grammatical items

• verbal & nominal ing-phrases (the painting vs. painting smth)

• transformation of the clause’s agent structure

• active vs. passive vs. middle voice (the poem translates well)

• degrees of obligation & necessity

• decontic -> permission (can go)

• epistemic -> degree of certainty (can’t be sleeping)

• dynamic -> ability (can swim)

• product, result / process

• fact / action

• stative / dynamic predication

• subconscious / conscious perception & cognition

• narrative foreground / background

• simple present -> facts, routines (begin)

• will-future -> spontaneous decisions (will begin)

• going-to future -> planned actions (going to begin)

• present progressive -> fixed arrangements (be beginning)

• future progressive -> action that will be in progress (will be beginning)

• using infinitive instead of ing-form

  -> translate into L1 to correct mistakes

• gerund: semaantics of fact & habit

• infinitive: semantics of possibility & single instance

-> main-verb tense/mood has influence on choice

• “auch” vs. “auch nicht”

• “etwas” vs. “nicht etwas”

• “bother” not used as assertive form

negation of must

• needn’t pay -> musst nicht

• must not pay -> darfst nicht

deontic obligation

• you must pay / gotta pay / supposed to pay in advance

epistemic necessity

• the story must be true / has to be / is bound to be / is sure to be true

• typology: classifies & compares many languages

• typologically informed contrastive linguistics

• spelling out in detail what analytical & sythtic design plans mean

• relevant on any pairing

• cataloguing contrasts -> unified explanation

• Kontaktstellung vs. Distanzstellung

• English (fuzzy / implicit) vs. German (clearly defined / explicitly marked)

• fundamental contrasts in expression of grammar

• English: S before V; V before O

  • word order essential

  • less explicit grammatical marking

  • loose fit of syntactic form & semantic function

• German: S marked by nominative; object marked by accusative

  • more explicit grammatical marking

  • tight fit of syntactic form & semantic function

• English has lower encoding effort for speaker (vague & ambiguous)

  -> more decoding effort for listener

• German has higher encoding effort for speaker (explicitly marked messages)

  -> lower decoding efort for listener

• options in German expected to be subset of those available in English

• no formal dative-accusative contrast in English -> he was helped

• passive from direct & indirect object in English

  -> she was given the award / Der Preis wurde ihr gegeben

• passives from prepositional degrees -> Can she be relied on?

• passive from SVA with implication of transitive SVO semantics

  -> this bed has been slept in / das Bett ist drin geschlafen worden

• passives from lexical phrases -> people should not be taken advantage of.

• subject to subject raising

  • only for certain verbs -> he turned out to be ok

• object to subject raising

  • limited traces in German but pervasive in English -> she’s pleasant to talk to

• subject to object raising

  • unattested in German but pervasive in English -> I want you to come with me

-> autonomy of language faculty

-> assume disruptive stages in evolution of human language

• attention to meaning

• different sorts of meaning of words

• show how various grammatical behaviours of words are consequence of their meaning difference

-> continuity & incremental build up form lower functions

• formalist “autonomous” syntax model difficult to defend in extreme forms

• usage-based & functional models more sophisticated

  • role of frequency in language acquisition & use

  • interdependence between syntax, grammar, semantic & pragamatics

• some German sentences not usable in present-tense unless used in subordinate clause

  -> no semantic /functional reason why fobidden to formulate this idea in German

  -> purely ornamental complexity & useless complication

• some English adjectives have similar meaning

  • likely/probable but Manchester is probable to win

  -> no semantic, pragmatic or usage-frequency reasons for why those synonyms should vehave differently in grammar

English

• very flexible way that verb chains are built

• mixture of infinitive, gerund, participles

-> multiple translations with AI lead to dinstancing from the original meaning

subject / object NP (speech)

• subject NPs overwhelmingly pronominal

• object NPs more complex -> indefinite articles

-> given-before-new as the information order

coordination vs. subordination

conjunctions have huge impact on meaning of sentence

-> although, and, but, in contrast , despite

discourse markers & tags

occur primarily in speech -> uh, do you, isn’t it, so, well then

S P (A) (clause pattern)

• simple sytax at clausal level

• complex at level of phrase

NP structure

• mostly postmodification in English -> right-branching

• sometimes postmodifiers -> short

• linguistic context

  • grammatical & lexical contrasts -> source vs. target language

  • typological distance SL & TL -> source of translation difficulty

  • “Translationese”: typical features of translated language -> more explicit less idiomatic

• cultural context

  • cultural distance -> translation difficulty

• political context

  • precarious or privileged -> translator’s statues

  • translating between languages of unequal global reach & status

    
    

• simplification

  • lower lexical destiny & lower type/token ratios

• explication

  • more explicit coherence relations -> less pronominal reference & fewer general nouns

  • translated differentlly by machine & human

• normalisation

  • e.g. recasting nonfinite VPs as NPs to bring more in lines with “nominal” syntax of German

• convergence

  • less stylistic variability & creativity

    
    

• control ≠ kontrollieren -> überprüfen

• Jungfrau -> virgin oder virgo

• actual ≠ aktuell

• Pommes -> chips oder fries

• part of analytical structures on word formation, grammar & semantics

• to lead ≠ lead role

• to up the costs ≠ up

• to march ≠ March

• assembles ≠ assembles

-> no conversion in German

• Dunst, Nebel <-> fog, haze, mist

• lächeln, grinsen, schmunzeln <-> smile, grin, sneer

• Macht (Gewalt) <-> power (violence)

• monkey wrench (Engländer)

• tree ≠ arbre ≠ Baum ≠ árbol -> multiple words for same concept

typical demonstration cases:

-> orientation in space

-> experience of time

-> colour terms (Russian blue)

-> emotions (Heimweh)

-> evaluations

-> reproducing chunks vs. creating original utterances

• doubly subjective vision -> encoding & decoding

• create world through language

• playing to people’s biases

-> grammatical/lexical categories as off-switches for the mind

• semantic primes (universals) to construct language-specific concepts

• language-specific concepts explicated by breaking them down into constituents primes

• true interface between language, culture & cognition

• not decontextualized language system that expresses/determines identitiy

• speakers make use of system in specific times & places

• connects to culture & cognition

• multiple & contradictory world-views can take shape with every single language system

  -> world views form part of it

• no language good or bad -> only the ways the language is used

RP

• post-vocalic /r/ silent

• only linking /r/ pronounced

• voiceless dental stop /t/ & [ʔ] in salient environment

• /l/ realised clearly only [ɫ] as allophone

GA

• /r/ pronounced when spelled

• flapping of /t/: [ɾ] -> intervocalic following stress

• following /r/ & /n/ in stressed syllables

• velar [ɫ] in all positions

• residual contrast between /w/ & /ʍ/

RP

• short back mid vowel /ɒ/ -> hot

• /ju:/ -> new, duty

• “broad “ /ɑ:/ -> class, dance

GA

• corresponding words have long vowels

• /u:/ -> duty

• /æ/ -> BrE /ɑ:/

  -> no contrast in large numbers of /æ/-words

-> neither, leisure, fertil, process, search all pronounced differently in the vowels (no rule)

• either-or lists are misleading

  -> shop, autumn, post common in BrE & AmE

  ->store, fall, mail common in AmE & BrE

• AmE spreads fast into toher varieties -> only few lexical contrasts

BrE

• <re> -> centre

• <our> -> flavour

• <ll> -> traveller

• <is> or <iz>-> organise / organize

-> dialogue, cheque, programme, practise/practice, tyres

AmE

• <er> -> center

• <or> -> flavor

• <l> -> traveler

• <iz> -> organize

-> dialog, check, program, practice/practice, tires

• business -> bill/check, deposit account/savings account

• education -> class/grade, maths/math

• clothing -> dinner jacket/tuxedo, handbag/purse

• food & drinks -> aubergine/eggplant, biscuit/cookie, jam/jelly

• household -> flat/apartment, toilet/restroom

• car & travel -> bonnet/hood, boot/trunk, car park/parking lot

• different from (both) / different than (AmE) / different to (BrE)

• a new lease of life (BrE, IrE, AU) / a new lease on life (all others)

• stand for office (BrE) / run for office (AmE)

• 1600: no significant ESL, EFL-ELF use

• 1800: one of competing languages (coloniasation) -> some ESL use

• 2000: collapse of British EMpire & increasing challenge to US hegemony

  -> English as global language

-> unipolar World Language System (1st time)

• kicked off by top-down planning

• operating as invisible hand process

• economi skill -> cultural capital

• WLS as efficient, strong ordered -> ties together globally

  global communication market free & not fair

  -> BUT: niches for peripheral languages

• hyper-central variety -> AmE

• super-central varieties

  • standard -> BrE, AustrE, NigE

  • non-standard -> AAVE, Jamaican Creole

  • regionally unrestricted science, international law

• central varieties

  • standard -> IrE, NeWZE, CanE

  • non-standard -> Nigerian Pidgin, US Southern E

  • regionally unrestricted -> “Euro-English”

• peripheral

  • standard -> Papua New Guinea E, Maltese E

  • non-standard -> all traditional rural non-standard dialects (pidgins & creoles)

• hyper-central language -> only English

• super-central language -> <20 (French, German,…)

• central language -> <200

• peripheral languages -> >6000

• pluricentric English not democratic -> hierarchial structure

• no more norm.providing authorities -> anonoymous language-engineering in software & AI

• variety & territory no longer strongly dependent on each other -> all English everywhere

• some non-standard varieties very visible & prestigous now -> more important than standard variety sometimes

• winners: online presence, governmental support

  -> Spanish, English, German, Japanese, French…

• underdogs: active research communities, huge amounts of data

  -> Russian, Korean, Vietnamese

• rising stars: benefitting from unsupervised pretraining

  -> Ukrainian, Afrikaans, Hebrew

• hopefuls: playing some role in current NLP research

  -> Zulu, Lao, Irish

• scaping-bys: no digital future without actions

  -> Navajo, Fijian, Greenlandic

• left-behinds

  -> Dahalo, Warlpiri

• extrapolation from offline language use works for few countries -> Japan

• measurement by content easier but not without problems

  • internet multilingualism varies by region, topic, communities

  • difficult to document multilingual users & content creators

  • difficult to classify multilingual content

    -> Naijá mixed or used with English

• hyper-central language -> none

• super-central language -> French, German, English

• central language -> Japanese, Spanish, Russian,…

• peripheral languages -> vast majority

• hyper-central language -> only English

• super-central language -> none

• central language -> Japanese, SPanish, Russian, Chinese, French, German,

• peripheral languages -> vast majority

• invention to integrate others into own narrative

• language used to segregate

• not possible wihtout globalisation of English

• new linguistic hierarchy

• overcoming Eurocentrism by Anglicising everyone

• World Englishes as mobile/mediated linguistic resources

• English in the multilingual languagescapes of cultural globalisation

• postcolonial paradox of English

  • decolonisation has gone hand in hand withdeeper entrenchment of ENglish in ESL communities

• standardisation paradox

  • global English becoming more homogenous & heterogenous at the same time

    -> AmE: global default language

    -> all Englishes can turn up everywhere

• world-language paradox

  • world turns to English

    -> multilingualism in English will become linguistic & cultural handicap

ESL view

• decision to ignore someone speaking certain language impacts not the right of the someone to do so

ENL view

• foreigners stubbornly use own languages & losers are Anglo-Saxons who don’t want to learn

• life-long learning & teaching of English

• inspiration from psychology -> ideal selves

• SLA & applied linguistics -> ideal , ought-to L2 self

• efficient = scientific description of L2 & parallel description of L1

• systematically comparing culture of L1 and L2

  -> patterns can be predicted

problems

• some predicted errors not made

• some errors made but not predicted

• some strucutal contrast not difficult to learn

• structural differences between L1 & L2 -> learning difficulty

• storng predictive version - - - > weak diagnostic version

• errors made from universal learning strategies

• L1 transfer

• overgeneralization

• problems caused by over-reliance on reductionist behaviorist models of learning

  -> excessive focus on patterns & drills

  -> need for empirical research & “error analysis”

• contrastvie comparison of language pairs determine relative difficulty

• comparison to more objective typological hierarchies determine absolute difficulty

• final devoicing common across languages & found as developmental phase in L1 aquisition of English

-> learning devoicing easier than voicing

• symmetrically -> talking about age

• non-symmetrically

  • placement of pronouns E -> F > F -> E

  • pluralization of nouns E -> G > G -> E

  • negation of modal verbs G -> E > E -> G

• learner language not defective version of L2 but partly autonomous & developing system

• learner not highly predictable passive “responder” to external stimulus -> active/creative problem-solver

• interlanguage: construct fit to accomodate all relevant phenomena & factors

• to wit: interference, overgeneralization, pyercorrection & avoidance strategies

• transfer: /i:/, order of attributes, vocab, collocations

• interference: /wɔːtə/, /vɔːtɐ/

• hypercorrection: /werɪ wel/, progressive overused

• avoidance: jemanden unter den Tisch trinken

• under/overrepresentation: multiple possibilities to form sentence, idioms shared ealier, question tags

• simplification

• analogical extension

• maximising explicitness/transparency

• code switching

• 3,7 million words

• essays by intermediate & advanced learners

• 16 different mother tongue backgrounds (Spanish, French, Chinese, German,…)

• 1 Million+ words of spoken interview data

• 800.000 words from 11 mother tongue backgrounds (Spanish, Chinese, French, German, Japanese)

• enables study of errors & statistical-stylistical profile of learner as against native-speaker texts

• over/underrepresentation of forms

• phraseology, collocations & naturalness

• repetitive phrasal chunkiness, lexical & phrasal “teddy bears” (in my opinion)

• language supports thinking, reasoning & communication

  -> all languages function well in practice

• form does not follow function all the time

  -> grammatical constructions not entirely transparent semantically

  -> grammatical/formal complexity but no communicative function

• successful communication: following rules

  -> violating rules: convention vs. creativity

-> Generative Theory, Formal semantics

• language faculty = interaction of separate models

• autonomy of syntax

• grammatic form to ve explained in own terms

• discrete/binary categories

• rules as self-contained algorithms

• grammaticality jugdgements immune to usage frequency

-> cognitive linguistics, Construction grammar

• language faculty embedded in general human cognitive capacities

• form & meaning as lexicogrammatical continuum

• constructions as conventionalised form-meaning pairings

• impossible to live with him vs. impossible to live with

• but possible to live with does not exist

• probable vs likely

• give vs donate

• basic SVO -> passive vs mediopassive

• SVO(A) -> SVOO

• SV-inversing

• SV(A)O

• categorically/prototypically defined categories

• binary choice / gradient transitions

• scope for unauthorised moves: no /limited