The active group of micro-organism belonging to the class of bacteria, fungi, algae contributing fertility to the soil either individually or in a collective manner promoting growth of the plants.

Advantages

• Pollution free, does not harm environment

• No Eutrophication, water bloom

• Microbes increase in number by itself

• Increase crop yield by 20-30%.

• Replace chemical nitrogen and phosphorus by 25%

• Stimulate plant growth

• Activate the soil biologically

• Restore natural soil fertility

• Provide protection against drought and some soil borne diseases

• Protects from heavy metal Toxicity

• Increases PGPR (Plant Growth-promoting rhizobacteria)

Disadvantages

• Costly

• Bio fertilizer takes time to utilize production

• provide lower nutrient density than chemical fertilizers

• bio-fertilizer difficult to store and may have a much shorter shelf-life than chemical fertilizers

• Plant specific, so can create availability issue (microbes with specific strain needed)

Isolation

• Healthy mature root nodule taken

• Wash it by Sterile distilled water

• surface sterilized in 1% sodium hypochlorite solution for 3 min

• crush the nodules with distilled water

• Streak the suspension in pertiplates containing YEMA media.

• Incubate 3-4 days at 28-30C

• Translucent glistening elevated colonies on the surface of the YEMA media

Identification

Both Rhizobium and Agrobacterium can grow YEMA media, it can be distinguished based on the following test.

1. CRYEMA Test

2. Glucose Peptone Agar test

3. Salt tolerance Test

4. Lactose Test

Starter & Mass Culture

• Mycorrhizae are a symbiotic association between plant roots and fungi.

• Their major role is to enhance nutrient especially phosphate and water uptake in the host plant.

• by exploiting a larger volume of soil than roots alone can do.

Discovered the mycorrhiza Albert Frank in 1885.

Mycos - Fungus

rhiza - root

Two predominant types of mycorrhizae

Ectomycorrhiza

1. live only on the outside of the root.

2. Relationships are characterized by an intercellular surface known as the Hartig Net(wooly covering)

3. Ectomycorrhiza tend to form mutual symbiotic relationships with woody plants

4. only 5-10% of terrestrial plant species

5. birch, beech, willow, pine, oak

6. ectomycorrhiza can be identified by the mantle

Endomycorrhiza

1. lives inside of the root hyphae outside the root.

2. relationships are characterized by a penetration of the cortical cells by the fungi and the formation of arbuscules and vesicles by the fungi.

3. Endomycorrhiza have an exchange mechanism on the inside of the root, with the fungi’s hyphae extending outside of the root.

4. some hyphae send small projection into cortical cell without destroying them.

5. over 80% of terrestrial plant species

6. bryophytes and pteridophytes

7. Sub division zygomycotina

Hartig NetThe Hartig Net consists of highly branched hyphae connecting the epidermal cells and cortical root cells.

Mantle The formation of a dense hyphal sheath (10 μm) surrounding the root’s surface. This is known as the mantle

Vesicle The mycelium of mycorrhizae enters the host plant cell and forms a sac-like organ called vesicle.

• store polyphosphates and other metals through which fungal mytozoa

• supply phosphate to plant roots.

Arbuscules some hyphae in endomycorrhizae send small projection into cortical cell without destroying them.

• Endomycorrhiza are further subdivided into specific types

Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza

Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas (VAM) and arbuscular mycorrhizas are mutualistic symbioses formed between the roots of most plants. mycorrhizal fungi enhance phosphorus uptake of their host plants and that their presence is more prevalent in roots in low P soils. These mycorrhizas also increase the uptake of other mineral nutrients.,for e.g. P, Cu and Zn.

Isolation

Identification

Mass Production

VAM plays an immense role in agricultural crop production rate and forest tree growth

1. Strengthens the root system and increases the rate of water absorption by the roots

2. Increases resistance to soil borne diseases.

3. Increases crop production and crop quality.

4. Aggregation of soil particles improves soil structure and reduces soil erosion.

5. Can absorb more mineral salts and fertilizers from the soil.

6. Increases resistance to various heavy metals, salinity etc

7. Increases the absorbability of elements like P, N, Zn etc. from the soil.

8. exposure to VAM increases the number of nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium in the soil. Due to this, the level of nitrogen in the soil increases.

9. mycoradiizer effect reduces the number of harmful bacteria in the soil in many cases

10. Growth and production of Beans, Peas, Lettuce, Chilli etc. are significantly increased

Soil Erosion

Importace of Phosphate

The three major nutrients- nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium required by plants. Among these nutrients, phosphorus constitutes a critical component because on one hand it is limiting for crop yield and, on the other hand, it is a non-renewable resource.

Why Mycorrhizal Symbiosis

In soil, phosphorus (P) is present in different pool

• one is organic phosphorus (Po)

• inorganic phosphorus (Pi)

• Only a small amount is directly accessible to plants as solubilized Pi. Plants take up P from soil as Pi.

• Therefore, P is one of the major limiting nutrient elements for plant growth.

• The diffusion rate of Pi in the soil is very low as a result a depletion zone arises around the roots.

• To overcome the Pi limitation in the rhizosphere, the formation of symbiotic structures with mycorrhizal fungi is considered as the most widespread response to increase P uptake by plants

Why mycorrhizal plants accumulate more P than non-mycorrhizal plants

1. the hyphal network is very efficient in nutrient uptake due to its large surface area. (very extensive in the soil and increase the absorbing area of roots.)

2. phosphorus is a highly immobile element due to which Depletion zone occurs. Extra radical hyphae extend beyond this depletion zone, absorbing bio-available phosphate that is otherwise not accessible to the plant

The AM pathway can reduce the impact of Pi depletion in the rhizosphere and so improve plant P nutrition and growth. The extent to which an AM plant grows better than a non-mycorrhizal (NM)

Depletion zone

Phosphate is easily absorbed by soil particles and a phosphate free zone rapidly occurs around plant roots. This is Depletion zone.

Application as Biofertilizer

1. Tub

   Tub is prepared for plant growth. The volume of this tub should be 1m x 1m x 0.3m. This tub is built by burnt bricks.

   Lining of black polythene sheet on its inner wall

2. Mixture

   A mixture of 50 kg vermiculite, 5 kg sterilized soil is collected in that tub.

   The height of the vermiculite and soil mixture should be 20 cm in the tub.

3. Some water is sprinkled in the vermiculite collecting tank

4. Vertical grooves are made over the vermiculite for sowing the seeds.

5. 1 kg VAM inoculum (mother culture) is spread 2-5 cm below the surface of vermiculite.

Cyanophyceae

The blue-green, prokaryotic underdeveloped class of algae is called Cyanophyceae.

Because the coating layer of these algae is slippery, they are called Myxophyceae

……..

//The term Cyanophyceae is also of Greek origin (Greek Kyanas = blue, phyton = plant). Currently, biologists think They are photosynthetic bacteria, so many people call them cyanobacteria.

Mixophyceae

(Greek Myxa = slime, phyton = plant)

Mixophyceae is name of a taxonomy family.

Cahracteristics:

1. A primitive and simple type of cell structure.

2. The presence of a primitive type of nucleus, called central body

3. which lacks a nucleolus and a nuclear membrane.

Why Cyanobacteria is called Blue green algae

cyanobacteria are also referred to as blue-green algae.

1. Chlorophyll is the green pigment

2. phycocyanin is the blue pigment.

By using the process of photosynthesis, they are able to produce their own food. Because they have both blue and green photosynthetic pigments.

Names with place

fresh water : Anabaena

Marine : Dermocarpa

In moist soil : Nostoc, Anabaena

Intracellular : Anthoceros

Common species of Azolla are :

A. microphylla

A filiculoides.

A pinnata

A. nilotica,

A. caroliniana,

A. rubra

Amexicana

Cultivation of Azolla

Land

• Azolla is usually cultivated in wetlands.

• The land where Azolla is to be planted must be flat.

• If the size of the land is large, it should be divided into small plots with a dam. The area of ​​each small plot should be 20 × 2 m.

• Each plot will have drains for irrigation.

• Azolla grows best in a slightly acidic environment. The optimum pH is 4.2

Other

• The height of water table in the plots should be controlled at 10 cm.

Process

1. dung water mixture 10 kg dung should be dissolved in 20 It water and spread on the field.

2. In addition, 100 gm of super phosphate should be added to each plot which helps in rapid growth of Azolla.

3. Then 8 kg of Azolla-biomass should be added to each plot.

4. After 4-6 days of Azolla inoculation the plots can be spread again with superphosphate at 100 gm.

5. After 7 days of inoculation, 100 gm per plot of Carbofuran (Furadan) is added which acts as an insecticide. This chemical compound kills mosquito larvae

6. In this way for two to three weeks the water level in the soil is maintained at 10 cm. Creates a thick layer on the surface. This lining is called Azolla mat.

Azolla mat It is a common native aquatic plant in Tasmania.

• farm dams and other still waterbodies.

• small and float,

• fast growing and can be abundant and form large mats.

• color typically red

• have small, water repellent leaves.

Allpication as Biofertilizer

Azolla can be applied in paddy fields in two ways.

1. Azolla biomass can be applied to the soil before sowing plants

2. post-sowing.

Pre

• The height of the water should be determined as 10 cm.

• Collecting and processing Azolla biomass from nursery plot and it should be added directly to the land at the rate of 15 tons/hectare

Post

• In case of post-planting application, Azolla is applied directly as 500 kg per hectare 7 days after planting.

• Soil water depth must be 5-7.5 cm.

• Azolla mat will form in soil four weeks after planting.

• In this way Azolla mats can be formed for the second time after four weeks by inoculating a second time on the same plot. Thus biomass production of Azolla up to 20-25 tonnes is possible from two inoculation plots.

Significance

1. Azolla floats in ground water and forms a mat so sunlight cannot reach ground water properly. As a result the ground water elevation is about 1° lower than normal. This low humidity creates an unfavorable environment for weed growth in the soil.

2. Azolla's dense mats block sunlight from reaching the soil, inhibiting weed seed germination, thereby reducing weed infestation. Azolla is called a bioherbicide for the above two reasons. 33.3% Azolla milotica

3. Nutrients present in flood water cannot be directly absorbed by rice plants.

   • Azolla can store these nutrients inside its body.

   • Vegetative elements are added to the soil when the bodies of plants are incorporated into the soil after death.

   • This process is called mineralization.

4. The pH of floodwaters present beneath mats of Azolla never reaches alkaline levels. Thus the former Azolla prevents the loss of ammonia from the soil by preventing the pH from reaching alkaline levels.

Rice Duck Azolla

Above all, nitrogen fixation by Azolla can occur at a significant level that is appreciable for increasing productivity in rice. It has been found that 3-5 kg ​​of nitrogen can be fixed by Azolla per hectare per day under favorable conditions. Rice-duck-Azolla integrated cultivation method (Integrated System of Cultivation) has been introduced in Japan. With this method it is possible to avoid pesticide application in rice. Duck and Azolla are reared together in paddy fields. Azollas are consumed by ducks during migration in ground water. As this food is rich in protein and antioxidants, it increases the growth and egg production capacity of ducks. The droppings that the ducks make while roaming the land are again used as a phosphate source for Azolla. Not only this, it also acts as a phosphate source for rice. Ducks feed on rice and Azolla pests while roaming, eliminating the need for pesticide application. In addition, dense growth of Azolla prevents weeds from growing in paddy fields. Thus it is possible to get multiple benefits by rearing rice, duck and Azolla together

Aanbena-Azolla Association

Anabaena is a

• linear nitrogen-fixing

• protonucleate

• blue-green algae or cyanobacteria

• These algae fix nitrogen through nitrogenase enzymes in specialized cells called heterocysts located in the filaments.

• It is an algae belonging to the family Nostocaceae which can live as endophytes of plants such as ferns, spp.

Azolla, on the other hand, is

• an aquatic fern

• belonging to the family Salviniaceae.

• The shape of this fern is very small and

Association

The main two species of this fern are – (a) cristata and (b) filiculoides.

A blue-green alga called Anabaena azollae lives mitotically on the leaves of this fern. Usually this algae lives on the surface of fern leaves.

• The alga provides nitrogen to the fern,

• and the fern provides a habitat for the alga.

Anabena Azolla identification

1. Note the presence of Anabaena algae in the cross-section of Azolla leaves. Azolla can be done. Jute

2. Found pigment particles phycocyanin of Anabaena in Azolla leaves gone

// Cyanophyceae which are used as microorganism are Aulosira, Anabaena Nostoc, Cylindrospermum etc.

• A layer of Azolla, called Azolla mat, can be observed on top of water bodies within 2-3 months in suitable environment.

• Azolla is dried and used as a biofertilizer, as Anabaena azollae present in it increases nitrogen content in the soil by fixing nitrogen

Why Azolla and Blue Green Algae

• Azolla is useful for rice cultivation. Acts as a fertilizer, as rice requires a lot of nitrogen to eat. Azolla is used as biofertilizer in paddy fields in countries like Philippines, Vietnam, China, Indonesia, India etc. where rice is the main food grain.

• Whereas free-living nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria fix 20-30 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year, proper application of Azolla rich in Anabaena can supply about 600 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year

• Azolla is applied to the field at two times— (a) before sowing of paddy, (b) during transplanting of paddy seedlings from the seed bed to the paddy field.

• About 5% of the N2 fixed in Azolla is directly taken up by rice plants.

• Rice production increased by 103% using Azolla nilotica in Tanzania.

• Additional advantages of using Azolla are—

  1. tolerate small amounts of heavy metal (Hg, As etc.) poisoning.

  2. Azolla mat prevents weeds from growing in paddy fields.

  3. When Azolla dies, N2, P, K from decomposing bodies mix with soil to form fertilizers.

Organic farming, also known as ecological farming or biological farming,

• An agricultural system

• that uses fertilizers of organic origin such as compost manure, green manure, and bone meal and places

• emphasis on techniques such as crop rotation and companion planting.

Advantages

1. Environment-friendly

2. Promotes sustainable development

3. Healthy and tasty food

4. It uses organic inputs

5. Generates income

6. Generates income through exports

7. Source of employment

Disadvantages

1. Lack of subsidies

2. Organic farmers may also use organic pesticides and other organic chemicals

3. May not be Truly Organic at times

4. Lack of infrastructure

5. Higher costs

6. Knowledge-Intensive farming

7. More work

8. More observations required

Process of Organic Farming

• Conversion of land from conventional management to organic management

• Management of the entire surrounding system to ensure biodiversity and sustainability of the system.

• Crop production with the use of alternative sources of nutrients such as crop rotation, residue management, organic manures and biological inputs.

• Management of weeds and pests by better management practices, physical and cultural means and by biological control system

• Maintenance of live stock in tandem with organic concept and make them an integral part of the entire system

Green manure is a type of organic fertilizer where an entire fresh plant or plant part (e.g.,. Leaf) is directly used as manure in agriculture lands, without any prior decomposition or composting.

• Green manures are required to be added in bulk quantity.

• This concept is fast gaining popularity in organic farming

• where it plays a significant role in sustainable annual cropping system.

Types of municipal waste

Solid waste

The useless and unwanted products in the solid state discarded by society. It is produced either by -

• product of production processes or

• arise form the domestic or commercial sector when objects or materials are discarded after use.

Agricultural waste

Agricultural waste are plant residues from agriculture. These waste streams originate from arable land and horticulture.

• Agricultural waste are all parts of crops that are not used for human or animal food.

• Crop residues consist mainly of stems and leaves.

Biodegradable Waste

Biodegradable waste is a type of waste,

• typically originating from plant or animal sources,

• which may be degraded by other living organisms.

• Biodegradable waste can be commonly found in municipal solid waste as green waste, food waste, paper waste and biodegradable plastics.

Recycling can be defined as the conversion of the waste material into useful material. It is the form of green technology, in which old material is recycled to make new products.

For example used paper can be recycled to make paper plates or toilet paper etc.

Recycling of industrial waste materials

1. Break the waste down. Some companies now use industrial composting systems instead of using landfills.

2. Thermal treatment. Most waste items contain some degree of energy content.

3. Reclaim the waste.

4. Harness harmful gases.

5. Burn to remake.

Vermicomposting or worm composting is a simple technology for converting biodegradable waste into organic manure with the help of earthworms.

Earthworms are valued by farmers because, in addition

• aerating the soil

• digest organic matter

• produce castings that are a valuable source of humus.

Name of two earth worm

1. Lumbricus terrestris

2. Lumbricus rubellus

Vermicast//

mixture of earthworm castings and uneaten bedding and feedstock harvested from worm beds. This means that we started with organic materials for bedding and added feedstocks.

The worms consumed most of the food and bedding, and left behind a mixture of their castings (worm poop) and undigested organic materials.

Vermi Culture

The term vermiculture mainly refers to the scientific process of cultivating worms or artificial rearing of worms to decompose organic food wastes into a nutrient-rich material.

• The output of vermiculture is called vermicompost

• and its formed by the process in which earthworms consume the farmyard manure and roughages in addition to the wastes from farms and thereby producing it.

1. To prepare compost, either a plastic or a concrete tank can be used. The size of the tank depends upon the availability of raw materials.

2. Collect the biomass

3. and place it under the sun for about 8-12 days.

4. Now chop it to the required size using the cutter.

5. Prepare a cow dung slurry and sprinkle it on the heap for quick decomposition.

6. Add a layer (2 – 3 inch) of soil or sand at the bottom of the tank.

7. Now prepare fine bedding by adding partially decomposed cow dung, dried leaves and other biodegradable wastes collected from fields and kitchen. Distribute them evenly on the sand layer.

8. Continue adding both the chopped bio-waste and partially decomposed cow dung layer-wise into the tank up to a depth of 0.5-1.0 ft.

9. After adding all the bio-wastes, release the earthworm species over the mixture and

10. cover the compost mixture with dry straw or gunny bags.

11. Sprinkle water on a regular basis to maintain the moisture content of the compost.

12. Cover the tank with a thatch roof to prevent the entry of ants, lizards, mouse, snakes, etc. and protect the compost from rainwater and direct sunshine.

13. Have a frequent check to avoid the compost from overheating. Maintain proper moisture and temperature.

1. Vermicomposting can also be used as a technique for domestic wastewater management.

2. Vermicompost can be used in organic farming and small scale sustainable farming.

3. Vermicompost has several excellent properties and has many advantages when applied to the soil.

4. Vermicompost is an excellent nutrient-rich organic fertiliser, which helps plants to grow well and give better yields.

5. Adding vermicompost, which is rich in organic compounds, to the soil, plays a fundamental role in improving productivity.

6. Vermicompost can also be used as a growth regulator as it contains all essential plant nutrients in appropriate proportions. Thus, it is complete and balanced plant food.

7. Vermicompost is high in proteins and other essential nutrients. Therefore, it is also used as an alternative in aquaculture feed.

8. Regular use of vermicompost extract promotes plant growth, keeps plants healthier and fights plant diseases.

Identification

The most practical way to identify the quality of vermicompost is simply bulk density Deep, Dark Brown Color,Uniform Texture. which gives an assessment about the porosity as well. Let me add another point that end quality of vermicompost is largely dependent upon the mixture materials subjected to vermicomposting .

Precautions

• Do not put fresh cow dung on the bed because it is hot and it can kill the earthworms.

• Maintain moisture, shade, temperature ranging between 8 to 30 degrees and proper air flow in the bed.

• Protect the earthworms from enemies like frogs, snakes, birds, crow, lizard and ant.

• Cow dung should not be hard and dry, make the dung wet and cold before using it as earthworm’s feed.

• Take care that there is no outbreak of termites and red ant in the bed.

• Do weeding every week in the bed, so that earthworms can get proper air flow.

• Keep removing the compost layer from top of the bed when it is ready.

It is the compost made from cattle-dung, human waste and plant residue. It is used as fertilizers and it is the biological aerobic decomposition of organic material into simpler compounds, yielding a dark, earthy, nutrient-rich humus.