Storming of Bastille
14 July 1789 - Paris
King (Louis XVI) commanded troops to move into the city.
He would soon order the army to open fire upon the citizens.
7,000 men and women gathered in front of the town hall and decided to form a peoples’ militia
They broke into a number of government buildings in search of arms.
Several hundred people marched towards the eastern part of the city
Stormed the fortress-prison Bastille
Hoped to find hoarded ammunition
Armed fight - commander of Bastille killed
Prisoners released
The Bastille was hated by all, because it stood for the despotic power of the king.
Fortress demolished - stone fragments sold
Following days - more rioting Paris + countryside
Protesting against the high price of bread
Ultimately led to the execution of the king in France
Condition of France in the 18th Century (before revolution)
In 1774, Louis XVI of Bourbon family of kings ascended to the throne of France
20 years old
Married to Marie Antoinette
Found empty treasure
Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France
Cost of maintaining an extravagant court at the immense palace of Versailles
France helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their independence from the common enemy, Britain. The war added more than a billion livres to a debt that had already risen to more than 2 billion livres
French government was obliged to spend an increasing percentage of its budget on interest payments alone
To meet regular expenses the state was forced to increase taxes
cost of maintaining an army, the court, running government offices or universities
Even this measure would not have sufficed
Estates & Privileges
French society in the eighteenth century was divided into three estates
Divine and Absolute Right
King
First Estate
Clergy
Seconnd Esate
Nobility
Third Estate
(Businessmen, Merchents); (Peasants, Artisans); (Landless Labourers, Servants)
Old Regime: French society before 1789.
Peasants - 90 per cent of the population
60 per cent of the land was owned by nobles, the Church and other richer members of the third estate
The members of the first two estates enjoyed certain privileges by birth
The most important of these was exemption from paying taxes to the state
The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges.
feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants
Peasants were obliged to render services to the lord – to work in his house and fields – to serve in the army or to participate in building roads
Taxes
Only members of the third estate paid taxes.
Church ———> Tithes (Peasants)
State ———> Taille (Peasants)
Indirect Taxes ———> Levied on everyday items (Salt, Tobacco)
Subsistence Crisis
Population - 23 million in 1715 ———> 28 million in 1789.
Demand for foodgrains increased
Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand
Price of bread (staple diet) rose rapidly
Workers’ wages were fixed
Wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices
Gap between the poor and the rich widened
Drought & Hail reduced the harvest
This led to a SUBSISTENCE CRISIS.
Subsistence - Supporting oneself, basic means of livelihood
Subsistence Crisis - Basic means of livelihood are endangered
Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges
Peasants and workers participated in revolts against increasing taxes and food scarcity
They lacked the means and programmes to carry out full-scale measures.
Groups within the third estate had become prosperous, access to education and new ideas were able to help
Emergence middle class (social group)
Earned Wealth through
Expanding overseas trade — manufacture of goods (wool. silk) exported or bought by the richer members of society.
Third estate included lawyers or administrative officials who were educated.
They believed no group in society should be privileged by birth.
A person’s social position must depend on his merit.
Freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all, were put forward by philosophers.
The role of the philosophers
John Locke ———> Two Treatises of Government ———> Sought to refute the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch
Jean Jacques Rousseau ———> The Social Contract ———> Proposed a form of government based on a social contract between people and their representatives
Montesquieu ———> The Spirit of the Laws ———> A division of power in the government — legislative, executive, judiciary
Put into force in the USA, after the thirteen colonies declared their independence from Britain
Philosphers’ ideas discussed (salons, coffee-houses, books, newspapers)
Louis XVI planned to impose further taxes — Anger and protest.
OUTBREAK OF THE REVOLUTION
Louis XVI had to increase taxes
Monarch had to call a meeting of the Estates General to pass his proposal, could not decide to impose taxes alone
The Estates General was a political body to which the three estates sent their representatives.
Monarch decided when to call a EG meeting
On 5 May 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of the Estates General to pass proposals for new taxes.
First and second estates ———> 300 representatives each (seated).
Thid Estate ———> 600 representatives [educated members] (standing).
Peasants, artisans, women denied entry — sent 40,000 letters.
Voting — Each estate had one vote. (Unfair, king would always get his way)
Louis XVI continued the same for his benefit.
Members of the third estate wanted voting by the assembly as a whole — each member would have one vote (principles by philosophers)
King rejected proposal — Third estate walked out in protest
Third Estate and National Assembly
Third estate representatives — thought themselves as spokesmen for whole france
On 20 June 1789,
They assembled in the grounds of Versailles
They declared themselves a National Assembly
They swore to draft a constitution for France that would limit the powers of the monarch
Led by Mirabeau and Abbé Sieyès
Mirabeau was born in a noble family but was convinced of the need to do away with a society of feudal privilege.
He brought out a journal and delivered powerful speeches to the crowds assembled at Versailles.
Abbé Sieyès, originally a priest, wrote an influential pamphlet called ‘What is the Third Estate’?
Turmoil in France
National Assembly at Versailles drafting a constitution
Rest of France seethed with turmoil.
Severe winter ———> Bad harvest
the price of bread rose
bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies.
spent hours in long queues at bakery, women stormed into shops.
The king ordered troops to move into Paris.
On 14 July, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille.
Rumours spread of the lords of the manor hiring bands of brigands who were on their way to destroy the ripe crops.
Peasants in several districts attacked chateaux.
They looted & hoarded grain and burnt down documents containing records of manorial dues.
A large number of nobles fled from their homes, many of them migrating to neighbouring countries.
Louis XVI finally recognized the National Assembly and accepted that his powers would be checked by a constitution.
On 4 August 1789,
the Assembly passed a decree (bill) abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes.
Members of the clergy were forced to give up their privileges.
Tithes were abolished and lands owned by the Church were confiscated.
As a result, the government acquired assets worth at least 2 billion livres.
Constitution of 1791
The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected.
Citizens voted for a group of electors, electors chose the assembly.
Men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage were given the status of active citizens, that is, they were entitled to vote
The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens.
To qualify as an elector and then as a member of the Assembly, a man had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers.
The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
Fundamental Rights (right to live, to freedom of speech/opinion, equal law) belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away
It was the duty of the state to protect each citizen’s natural rights.
France abolishes Monarchy and becomes a republic
Situation was tense.
Louis XVI signed the Constitution -but entered into secret negotiations with the King of Prussia.
Rulers of neighbouring countries worried
Made plans to send troops to put down revolts
Before this could happen, the National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare war against Prussia and Austria.
Thousands of volunteers joined the army
They saw this as a war of the people against kings all over Europe.
They sang Marseillaise by Roget de L’Isle (sung first by volunteers from Marseilles marching into Paris) — Now national anthem
Wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people.
Men fighting at the front — Women left to earn a living and look after families.
Large sections of the population were convinced that the revolution had to be carried further
The Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of society.
Political clubs — important rallying point for people who wished to discuss government policies & plan their own forms of action.
Women also had clubs (comes later)
Club of the Jacobins (St Jacob in Paris)
Rise of the Jacobins
Members of Jacobin club mainly of less prosperous sections of society
small shopkeepers, artisans (shoemakers), pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, servants, daily-wage workers.
Leader — Maximilian Robespierre
Jacobins wore long striped trousers similar to those worn by dock workers.
to set themselves apart from the fashionable sections of society, especially nobles, who wore knee breeches.
a way of proclaiming the end of the power wielded by the wearers of knee breeches
These Jacobins came to be known as the sans-culottes, literally meaning ‘those without knee breeches’
Sans - culottes men wore in addition the red cap that symbolised liberty. Women however were not allowed to do so
Jacobins form the convention
1792 Insurrection (uprise against gov)
In 1792, Jacobins planned an insurrection of a large number of Parisians who were angered by the short supplies and high prices of food.
On August 10 1792,
They stormed the Palace of the Tuileries
Massacred the king’s guards
Held the king himself as hostage for several hours.
Assembly voted to imprison royal family
Elections were held
From now on all men of 21 years and above got the right to vote
The newly elected assembly was called the Convention
On 21 September 1792
Abolished the monarchy
declared France a republic
Republic — form of government where the people elect the government & its head. No hereditary monarchy
Fate of the Louis XVI
He was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of treason
On 21 January 1793 he was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde
(Queen) Marie Antoinette met with the same fate shortly after
Reign of terror
Reign of terror ——> 1793-94
Robespierre’s Bad Side
Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment
All those whom he saw as being ‘enemies’ of the republic – (ex-nobles and clergy, other political parties) who did not agree with his methods – were arrested, imprisoned and then tried
If found guilty, were guillotined
The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. It was named after Dr Guillotin who invented it. (UNIMPORTANT BUT RELEVANT)
Robespierre’s Good Side
Robespierre issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages and prices
Meat and bread were rationed
Peasants forced to transport their grain to cities and sell it at prices fixed by government.
Use of expensive white flour forbidden; all citizens required to eat pain d’égalité (equality bread) made of wholewheat
Equality was also sought to be practised through forms of speech and address
Instead of the traditional Monsieur (Sir) and Madame (Madam) all French men and women were henceforth Citoyen and Citoyenne (Citizen)
Churches were shut down and their buildings converted into barracks or offices.
Fate of Robespierre
Robespierre pursued his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters began to demand moderation
He was cruel in his actions at times, even though he did bring equality
Finally, he was convicted by a court in July 1794 and arrested
Guillotined the following day
Directory rules France
Aftert the fall of the Jacobin government, the wealthier middle classes seized power.
New constitution introduced — denied the vote to non-propertied sections of society
It provided for two elected legislative councils
Then appointed a Directory, an executive made up of five members.
Meant as a safeguard against the concentration of power in a one-man executive as under the Jacobins.
Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them.
Political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of military dictator Napoleon Bonaparte.
Revolution for Women - their state and demands
Women were active participants in the events which brought about important changes in French society
They hoped that their involvement would pressurise the revolutionary government to introduce measures to improve their lives
State of Women
Most women of third estate worked for a living
seamstresses, laundresses, sold flowers, fruits and vegetables, domestic servants
Did not have access to education or job training
Only daughters of nobles or wealthier members of the third estate could gain education.
Working women had also to care for their families — cook, fetch water, queue up for bread and look after the children
Wages lower than those of men
Women’s Clubs
Discuss and voice interests
Started their own political clubs and newspapers
About sixty women’s clubs from different cities
The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women — most famous of them all.
Women’s demands
One of their main demands was that women enjoy the same political rights as men.
Constitution of 1791 reduced them to passive citizens — dissapointment.
They demanded the right to vote, to be elected to the Assembly and to hold political office
Only then their interests would be represented in the new government
Revolution for Women - Some improvement but continuation of their struggle
Improvement in the lives of women in early years
In the early years, the revolutionary government introduced laws that helped improve their lives
Together with the creation of state schools, schooling was made compulsory for all girls
Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will
Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely and registered under civil law
Divorce was made legal, and could be applied for by both women and men
Women could now train for jobs, could become artists or run small businesses
Women’s struggle for equal political rights
During the Reign of Terror, the new government issued laws ordering closure of women’s clubs and banning their political activities
Many prominent women were arrested and a number of them executed.
Women’s movements for voting rights and equal wages continued through the next two hundred years in many countries of the world
The fight for the vote was carried out through an international suffrage movement during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote
Abolition of slavery
One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery in the French colonies
The slave trade
Caribbean — Suppliers of commodities (tobacco, indigo, sugar and coffee)
Reluctance of Europeans to go and work in distant and unfamiliar lands — shortage of labour on the plantations.
Triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and the Americas (began in 17th century)
French merchants sailed from the ports of Bordeaux & Nantes to the African coast
There, they bought slaves from local chieftains.
Slaves were branded & shackled then packed tightly into ships
3 month long voyage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean (Americas).
There they were sold to plantation owners
Exploitation of slave labour ——> Meet demand in European markets for sugar, coffee, and indigo.
Port cities like Bordeaux and Nantes owed their economic prosperity to the flourishing slave trade.
Slavery flourished
Little criticism of slavery in France in 18th Century
National Assembly debated on rights of man being extended to all French subjects
Did not pass any laws, fearing opposition from businessmen whose incomes depended on the slave trade
The Convention, in 1794, legislated to free all slaves in the French overseas possessions.
This was a short-term measure
10 years later, Napoleon reintroduced slavery
Plantation owners understood their freedom as including the right to enslave African Negroes in pursuit of their economic interests
Slavery was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.
Revolution of everyday life
After storming of Bastille ——-> Summer of 1789 ———> Abolition of Censorship
In the Old Regime all written material and cultural activities (books, newspapers, plays) could be published or performed only after they had been approved by the censors of the king.
Now the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression to be a natural right.
Newspapers, pamphlets, books, printed pictures flooded the towns of France
Travelled rapidly into the countryside.
Described and discussed the events & changes in France
Freedom of the press also meant that opposing views of events could be expressed.
Each side sought to convince the others of its position through the medium of print.
Plays, songs and festive processions attracted large numbers of people.
Way to reach uneducated.illiterate people
Conclusion
Napoleon
In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France. He wanted to-
Conquer neighbouring European countries
Dispossess dynasties
Create kingdoms where he placed members of his family.
Napoleon saw himself as a moderniser of Europe
He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system
Initially thought of as a liberator who would bring freedom for the people
But soon, Napoleonic armies viewed as an invading force.
Defeated at Waterloo in 1815.
Reign only lasted 7 years
Legacy of the French revolution
The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution.
These spread from France to the rest of Europe during the nineteenth century, where feudal systems were abolished.
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