2. Hofstede

• Hofstede was one of the first researchers to analyse the influence of national culture on management practices

1. Power distance

2. Individualism/Collectivism

3. Masculinity/Femininity

4. Uncertainty Avoidance

5. Short-term/Long-Term orientation

6. Indulgence/Restraint

The extent to which less powerful members accept unequal power distribution.

• High: hierarchy accepted without question

• Low: authority is challenged, equality preferred

“Degree to which people in a society are integrated Into groups".

• Individualism: focus on personal goals and immediate family ("I")

• Collectivism: strong in-group loyalty, group goals over personal ones ("we")

1. Masculinity: prefers achievement, assertiveness, material rewards

2. Femininity: prefers cooperation, modesty, quality of life, care for the weak

tolerance of a society for ambiguity

• High: preference for rules, structured environments, intolerance for ambiguity

• Low: more open to change, risk, and differing views.

This dimension associates the connection of the past with current and future actions.

• “Short-term”-> traditions are honored and kept, while steadfastness is valued.

• “Long-term”-> view adaptation and circumstantial, pragmatic problem-solving

• Indulgence: free gratification of desires, enjoyment of life

• Restraint: strict social norms, suppressed gratification

🔹 Research method

• Relied only on attitude-survey questionnaires within IBM

• Use of a single method is criticized as not valid

• Representative nature of respondents questioned – almost no women

🔹 Characterisation of national cultures

• Presents a static view of culture

• missing extremes

• Cultures seen as territorially-bound, ignoring global influences

1. Surveys are appropriate but should be combined with other methods

2. Nations are imperfect units, but still useful for comparison

3. IBM’s uniform culture allowed better cross-country comparison

4. Research was extensive and results replicated many times

5. Open to improvements