What is a decsion
a decision is a delibrative process that results in the commitment to a categorical proposition
What sort of decisions are existing?
decision on goals
decision on task
decision on sensory input
What does Signal Detection Theory primarily aim to quantify?
A) Memory retention
B) Reaction time
C) Perceptual decision-making
D) Emotional response
c
In the context of Signal Detection Theory, what does a small distance between the two Gaussian peaks (small d′) imply about the perceptual task?
It implies that the perceptual task is difficult because the stimuli (e.g. colors) are harder to distinguish due to high overlap between their sensory distributions.
True or False: An ideal observer would place the decision criterion at the point where one distribution ends and the other begins.
False.→ An ideal observer places the criterion at the intersection of the two Gaussian distributions.
Explain what is meant by "categorical perception" in the context of speech perception.
Categorical perception refers to the brain's tendency to classify continuous acoustic input into discrete phoneme categories.
Adults typically compare incoming sounds to internal "prototypes" of phonemes they have learned.
Why does categorical perception in speech lead to an abrupt change in perception, even when the acoustic stimulus changes gradually?
A) Because the auditory system cannot detect small changes in sound frequency
B) Because speech sounds are always produced with clear physical boundaries
C) Because the brain maps continuous input onto discrete phoneme categories based on learned prototypes
D) Because all languages use the same set of phonemes
c)
Name two models for individual cell responses in decision areas
Ramping
individual spike rates meander from baseline in a drift-diffusion process with a terminating bound at the upper and lower (canonical view)
Step
alternative model where individual cells make an activity step into right direction
What was the case of Phineas Gage?
accident destroyed frontal lobes
lesion changed his cognitive behavior
What are the relevant parts of the brain for decision making?
Frontal lobe -> prefrontal lobe
What does lateral and medial mean?
lateral = toward the side / away from the midline
medial = closer to the bodys midline
What does ventral and dorsal mean?
ventral = towards the bottom
dorsal = towards the top
what is the hedonic calculus?
pleasure orientated
psychology: you chose the things that create positive feelings
What are the seven criteris from benthams felicific calculus?
duration
intensity
propinquity (how near or remote?)
extent
certainty
purity
fecundity (lead to further pleasure)
What is the Homo economicus and what the homo emotionalis?
eco:
rationl decision
max utility
emotionalis:
biases
emotional
-> homo sapienes has rel. preferences which shift depending on the objects that are being compared
What is the framing effect and what is the endowment effect?
Framing:
decision depend on how things are formulated
potential gains are stressed -> people more risk averse
losses are stresses -> people more risk seeking
Endowment
value is based on if things are owened
According to Prospect Theory, how do people's risk preferences change depending on whether outcomes involve potential gains or losses? Briefly describe their behavior in each of the following four situations:
A moderate chance of success
A small chance of success
A small chance of avoiding a loss
A small chance of incurring a large loss
risk averse - fear of disappointment
risk seeking - hope for large gain
risk seeking - hope to escape loss
risk averse - fear of catastrophe
What influences the value of an reward immense?
if reward will be in the future
What is the attribution effect?
humans see their own behavior as logically explained by the situation whereas the beahvior of others is explained by their character
What are the 2 decisional systems?
intuitive (fast, automatic, error prone)
rational (slow, effortful, reliable)
Which areas are involved in all decsisions
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
ventrolateral orbitofrontal cortex
lateral obrbitofrontal cortex
intraparietal cortex
supplementary motor area
presupplementary motor area
Which brain region is important for fast decsion
medial regions
-> medial areas aktive resembles Homo sapiens
Which system does it remble when lateral areaes are active
Homo oeconomicus
Which region is important for supressing irrational decisions
lateral prefrontal cortex
Which brain region is associated for risk taking which for risk aversion?
risk taking:
ventral striatium
ventromedial prefrotnal cortex
representative reward value
risk aversion:
increased activity in amygdala & anterior insula
How does amygdala activity differ when decisions are framed as gains vs. losses?
In gain frames, the amygdala is more active for risky options.
In loss frames, the amygdala is more active for sure options.
What is the role of the vmPFC(ventromedial) in people less affected by framing effects?
The vmPFC shows greater activity and supports rational, consistent valuation, regardless of gain or loss framing.
How does the delayes reward affect in impulsive people?
has a very low subjective value
What is the key difference between the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in decision-making?
Amygdala: Rapid, emotional evaluation of stimuli (e.g., fear, reward signals).
OFC: Integrates sensory and emotional input to assign subjective value and guide flexible decisions. → Amygdala sends emotional signals to OFC; OFC uses them for value-based choice.
How might the internal and external systems evaluate the same food choice differently?
Internal system: Chooses based on subjective reward (e.g. sugar = quick energy = good).
vmPFC
External system: Evaluates based on objective knowledge (e.g. unhealthy = "bad" calories). → Conflict between immediate reward vs. long-term health.
hippocampus & dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
What are the processes needed to be completed for a cog decision
value into goals
goals into plans (dorsomedial prefrontal areas)
plans into behavior and action (lateral prefrontal areas)
Which brain area is more active for decision on emotional cues?
medial wall ares
Which brain area is more active for decision on mathematical rules?
lateral areas
What role does the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex play in decision-making?
It helps frame options as gains or losses — e.g., seeing the same outcome as “half-full” or “half-empty.”
How does the frontopolar cortex contribute to goal-directed choices?
It evaluates how options align with long-term goals:
Medial part = self-defined goals
Lateral part = externally defined goals
What kind of values does the lateral orbitofrontal cortex assign?
It evaluates options based on the external context, such as social norms or situational cues.
What kind of values does the medial orbitofrontal cortex assign?
It assigns value based on internal states, like hunger, thirst, or other physiological needs.
In signal detection theory, what would be the ratio of false negative ~ vs
false positive decisions of an ideal observer ?
1:1
Which part of the frontal lobe is not considered part of the prefrontal cortex?
primary motor cortex
-> The motor cortex is involved in executing movements, not in higher-order cognitive functions like planning, decision-making, or reasoning — which are hallmarks of the PFC
How can the subjective value of an option be measured in humans?
Behavioral Choices Tasks
Which cortical area brings together external information, internal states and thus assigns the subjective value for a given situation?
vmPFC = ventromedial prefrontal cortex
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