Cortex lobes: Name the four lobes and the marked separating lines.
Clockwise starting left: (function examples added)
Frontal lobe: motor and non-motor functions, conscious movement, emotional expression, problem solving, memory, language, judgment, sexual behaviors
Parietal lobe: sensory information integration, spatial orientation, cognition, computation
-> seperation between Frontal and Parietal lobe is: Central sulcus
Occipital lobe: visual perception, color recognition, reading, reading comprehension, depth perception, recognition of object movement
Temporal lobe: auditory perception, memory, speech, language comprehension, emotional responses, visual perception, facial recognition
-> seperation between Frontal and Temporal lobe is: Lateral sulcus
Cortical architecture: The human cortex consists of several layers. How many are there? Please also roughly describe how a thalamic input is processed throughout the layers.
Six layers (neocortex)
Input layer IV --> layer II/III --> output layer V (canonical microcircuit)
Thalamic relay neurons send sensory information (e.g., from the eyes, ears, skin) to: Layer IV, the main input layer of the cortex.
From Layer IV, information is passed:
Upward to Layers II and III for local cortical processing and communication with neighboring cortical areas.
Downward to Layer V, where motor or associative outputs can be generated and sent to subcortical structures.
Layer VI then sends feedback projections back to the thalamus, helping to modulate incoming signals.
Cortex layers: Explain the different in layer thickness of cortical layer IV between the sensory and the motor cortex (Which one is thicker and why?)
The sensory cortex (especially primary sensory areas like the primary visual cortex)
Layer IV is thinner or nearly absent in the motor cortex
It receives thalamic sensory inputs.
In primary sensory areas (like V1, S1), a lot of thalamic input arrives → so Layer IV is very thick and well-developed.
Motor cortex is output-oriented
The primary motor cortex (M1) mainly sends information out to the spinal cord and muscles.
Its dominant layer is Layer V, which contains large pyramidal neurons (e.g., Betz cells) that project to the spinal cord.
Since it’s not primarily processing thalamic sensory input, Layer IV is much thinner or nearly missing.
Orientation curve: Plot the orientation tuning curve with example orientations for a cell designed to detect a vertical stimulus.
EEG Frequency Bands: Assign one property to each of the four frequency bands (example: gamma: cognitive processing)
Delta
Theta
Alpha
Beta
delta: deep sleep, loss bodily awareness
theta: dreams / light sleep, deep meditation, creativity, reduced consciousness (, memory encoding)
alpha: physically, mentally relaxed --> eyes closed
beta: awake, alert consciousness, thinking, excitement
Electrophysiolocal signals: How does the EEG change with anesthesia induction in terms of amplitude and frequency?
During anesthesia induction, the EEG typically shows characteristic changes in amplitude and frequency as brain activity slows down and becomes more synchronized.
Frequency
Decreases from high-frequency (beta, gamma) to lower frequency bands (alpha, theta, delta)
Cortical neurons become more synchronized and less active
Amplitude
Initially may increase (especially in alpha/theta bands) as slow oscillations dominate, then may decrease in deep anesthesia
Increased synchronization → larger voltage swings
Different cognitive states: Place the state brain dead, vegetative state, coma, minimally conscious state and Locked-in Syndrome in the coordinates below (graph with motor function on x-axis and cognitive function on y-axis).
Brain death assessment: Name three tests that are performed for the assessment of brain death.
1) cold water in ear - caloric test
2) pressure on eyes
3) absent light reflex (pupil), absent sucking reflex
4) eyes do not open when painful stimulus is applied to nail bed
5) absent cough reflex (when intubated)
6) apnoe test (assessing whether a person can breathe independently when carbon dioxide levels rise.)
Self-recognition: Please describe an experiment to demonstrate self-recognition in an animal.
Mirror Test (by Gordon Gallup in 1970.)
Marking the animal:
Place a visible mark (e.g., a spot of paint or dye) on a part of the animal’s body that it cannot see without a mirror (commonly the face or head).
The mark should be non-tactile (the animal cannot feel it) to ensure recognition is visual, not by touch.
Exposure to a mirror:
Allow the animal to see itself in a mirror.
Observe its behavior carefully over multiple sessions.
Observation of behavior indicating self-recognition:
The animal touches or investigates the mark on its own body while looking in the mirror (e.g., tries to remove or scratch the mark).
The animal uses the mirror to explore parts of its body it normally cannot see.
Neuroanatomy of cognitive behavior: If you take into account that both mammals and birds are capable of cognitive behavior, what can be said about the necessary anatomical basis for cognition?
The high number of forebrain neurons is highly relevant for complex cognition.
Both mammals and birds show complex cognitive behaviors (problem-solving, learning, memory, even tool use), yet their brain anatomies are quite different.
3. Key elements for cognition likely include:
Highly interconnected neuronal networks
Specialized regions for sensory integration, memory, and executive functions
Capacity for plasticity and learning
Choice behavior:
Please describe what is meant by the term “reward/delay discounting” in human choice behavior.
What part of the prefrontal cortex appears to suppress the fast decisions typical for irrational behavior?
Preference for smaller-sooner rewards over larger-later ones; reflects impulsive choice. - rewards that occur in the future have some risk of not being collected -> value is discounted - the delay discounting curve is quite steep, the value of a high reward drops rapidly to almost none if it is in the future - humans prefer options with immediate reward
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex: Suppresses impulsive, fast decisions; promotes rational, future-oriented behavior.
Decision making: Subjective value: Which cortical area brings together external information, internal states and thus assigns the subjective value for a given situation? Please describe some of the afferent projections that this area receives. Which neurotransmitter seems to plays a decisive role in the attribution of subjective value?
Cortical area: The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) integrates internal and external information to compute the subjective value.
Afferents: Inputs come from the amygdala (emotion), sensory areas, hippocampus (memory/context), and hypothalamus (internal states).
Neurotransmitter: Dopamine is key in encoding subjective value, especially regarding reward prediction.
Food ingestion: Hypothalamic circuit: Please describe the function of the two major outputs of the hypothalamic nucleus arcuatus when faced with a high leptin level.
When the body has high leptin levels (indicating sufficient fat stores and energy), the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the hypothalamus plays a central role in regulating food intake and energy balance.
POMC/CART Neurons: Activated by high leptin levels, Suppresses appetite, increases energy expenditure (via α-MSH, CART Neuropeptides)
NPY/AgRP Neurons: Inhibited by high leptin levels, Decreased hunger signaling, reduced food intake (via NPY, AgRP Neuropeptides)
Food ingestion: Anorexis nervosa
How does Anorexia nervosa differ from binge eating?
Which neurotransmitter systems of the brain appear to be dysregulated in Anorexia nervosa?
a) Difference: Anorexia nervosa is characterized by restriction and weight loss. Binge eating involves consuming large amounts of food followed by guilt, often with no compensatory purging.
b) NTs in anorexia nervosa: 5-HT (punishment and inhibition) is increased and DA (reward and motivation) is decreased
Functional Neuroanatomy/Addiction: Neuroanatomically, which reward circuits have been identified as main pathways mediating pleasure? Which neurotransmitter is involved? Name the mechanisms nicotine affects the reward system.
Reward circuit: The mesolimbic dopamine pathway, especially VTA to nucleus accumbens (NAc).
Neurotransmitter: Dopamine.
Nicotine: Activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on dopaminergic neurons in the VTA, enhancing dopamine release in the NAc.
VTA → NAc → PFC
Functional Neuroanatomy/Addiction: Tolerance and dependence as diagnostic criteria are major sources of conduction because they are not specific for addition. name two drugs which can cause dependence and tolerance but do not necessarily produce addiction.
coffein? sugar?
Benzodiazepines, opioids?
Beta-blockers: Used for hypertension, arrhythmias, and anxiety?
SSRIs: Used to treat depression and anxiety?
Functional Neuroanatomy/Addiction: Which of the following statements regarding brain addition is wrong?
Acute drug administration modifies brain function (drugs hijack the natural reward system)
Substances which are both rewarding and positively reinforcing have the potential to induce a state of addiction
Repeated exposure of an addictive drug causes pervasive changes in brain function and persist long after individual stop taking the drug
Effects of chronic drug administration have been identified neither at cellular, nor at molecular, structural and functional level
An addicted brain does not differ from an non-addicted brain
changes in brain metabolic activity, receptor availability, gene expression and responsiveness to environmental cues are obvious in an addicted brain.
4 & 5
The Moody Brain: According to the current hypothesis, antidepressants exert their effects mainly by a final elevation of neurotransmitter norepinephrine and serotonin. These effects can be achieved via pharmacological interaction with different targets at a synapse. Please name those targets/mechanisms we discussed in the lecture and assign one respective compound which acts according to that mechanism.
MAO antidepressants effect:
Moclobemide -> Inhibits monoamine oxidase A, the enzyme that breaks down serotonin and norepinephrine.
Mirtazapine -> Blocks α2 autoreceptors → ↑ release of norepinephrine and serotonin
TCA SSRI SSNRI -> Inhibits re-uptake of serotonine, dopamine & norepinephrine
The Moody Brain: Antidepressants do not include a homogeneous class of psychotherapeutic agents. However, they all show 4 main therapeutical effects. Name at least three of them.
antidepressive (mood elevating),
psychomotoric activation (motivation),
depression (sedation),
anxiolysis
The Moody Brain: According to the current hypothesis dopamine is highly involved in the manifestation of schizophrenia. This is supported e.g., by the pharmacological profile of almost all neuroleptics. Which common target and pharmacological property (regarding binding affinity) of neuroleptics speaks in favor of the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Name at least three arguments.
effects of antipsychotics -> standard antidepressants are D2-blocker and their binding affinity is proportional to effectiveness (so there must have been a good binding affinity)
post-mortem: schizophrenic patients have an increased amount of dopamine receptors
amphetamine-induced psychosis / experimental psychosis (substances which DA (cocaine, amphetamine) induce schizophrenic psychoses)
Hippocampus: NMDA receptors are playing a crucial role in the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) in the CA1 region of the hippocampus. But the activation of NMDA receptors depends on another glutamatergic receptor. Please name that receptor and explain its role in the process of LTP.
Other receptor: AMPA receptor. Role: AMPA receptor activation depolarizes the membrane, removing the Mg2+ block from NMDA receptors, allowing Ca2+ influx and LTP induction.
Role of AMPA receptors in LTP induction in the CA1 region:
Initial glutamate release from the presynaptic neuron activates AMPA receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
AMPA receptors are ionotropic glutamate receptors that allow Na⁺ influx into the postsynaptic cell, leading to depolarization.
This depolarization is essential because NMDA receptors are voltage-dependent:
They are blocked by Mg²⁺ ions at resting membrane potential.
Only when the membrane is sufficiently depolarized (by AMPA activity) does the Mg²⁺ block get removed.
Once unblocked, NMDA receptors respond to glutamate by allowing Ca²⁺ influx.
The Ca²⁺ influx through NMDA receptors triggers intracellular signaling cascades that induce LTP, such as:
Activation of CaMKII
Insertion of additional AMPA receptors into the postsynaptic membrane
Synaptic strengthening
Hippocampus: Which of the following statement(s) is (are) wrong?
Head direction cells fire maximally when an animal’s head faces a particle direction in the horizontal plane.
Border cells pack the spatial representation in a hexagon pattern.
According to the current hypothesis, the idiothetic reference frame is the basis for the coordinative system of the hippocampal formation.
AP5 is an NMDA receptor antagonist and blocks the induction of LTP
The activity of NMDA receptors can be blocked by CA2+ inside the channel
LTP is hypothesized to be a cellular mechanism for learning and memory.
True – Head direction cells are tuned to specific directions, independent of location or behavior
False – It’s grid cells in the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) that form a hexagonal grid pattern.
Border cells, in contrast, fire when the animal is near an environmental boundary (e.g., a wall).
True – Idiothetic cues (from self-motion, vestibular input, etc.) contribute to the internal spatial map.
True – AP5 (or D-APV) blocks NMDA receptors, which are essential for LTP induction.
False – Mg²⁺, not Ca²⁺, blocks the NMDA receptor channel at resting membrane potential.
Ca²⁺ is the ion that enters through the channel during activation, not one that blocks it.
True – This is one of the foundational hypotheses in neurobiology.
What 3 axes in the PFC and their functions?
Prefrontal processing occurs along a medio-lateral axis (intero- and exteroceptive /internal motivation and external context), a ventro-dorsal axis (what and where) and a rostro-caudal axis (more and less abstract)
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) can be functionally organized along three main axes, each associated with specific cognitive and behavioral functions:
Dorsal–Ventral Axis (What vs. How/Where):
Dorsal PFC:
Linked to spatial working memory, attention control, and action selection (“how” or “where” to act).
Ventral PFC:
Involved in object-based information, such as stimulus features, emotional relevance, and “what” to act on
Medial–Lateral Axis (Internal vs. External Guidance)
Medial PFC:
Associated with internally guided behavior, including motivation, emotion, self-reflection, and value-based decision-making.
Lateral PFC:
Supports externally guided behavior, especially task-focused control, rule application, and contextual decision-making.
Rostral–Caudal Axis (Abstract vs. Concrete Processing)
Rostral (anterior) PFC:
Engages in abstract reasoning, planning, and multitasking.
Caudal (posterior) PFC:
Handles more concrete, immediate actions, like motor planning and stimulus–response associations.
a) Which is the basal mechanism behind the alleviation of positive symptoms through conventional antipsychotics?
b) What is the main side effect?
c) Name a therapeutic advantage of atypical antipsychotics and an advantage regarding side effects
a) Antagonising D2 receptor
b) EPS (extrapyramidal symptoms): most commonly caused by typical antipsychotic drugs that antagonize dopamine D2 receptors
c) Also targets negative symptoms, reduced occurance of EPS
Name the scientists and the method that worked on the single neuron firing with short term memory
Fuster and Alexander (1971), using single-unit recordings in the prefrontal cortex
Single-unit recordings in the prefrontal cortex of monkeys during a delayed response task
Certain PFC neurons continue to fire during the delay period (after the cue disappears, before the response is made)
This was one of the first demonstrations that neurons can hold information “online” — the biological basis of short-term (working) memory
Tuning neurons with stimulus features
Tuning neurons with stimulus features refers to the concept that many neurons in the brain are selectively responsive to specific properties or features of a stimulus — a foundational principle in sensory neuroscience.
A neuron is “tuned” to a specific stimulus feature if it responds preferentially (i.e., fires more) when that feature is present
These features can be orientation, frequency, direction of motion, sound pitch, color, etc.
examles:
Orientation tuning in V1 (primary visual cortex):
Motion direction tuning in MT (V5):
Frequency tuning in cochlea and auditory cortex:
What are the differences between IPSP and EPSP at the postsynaptic membrane?
- EPSP (Excitatory postsynaptic potential): depolarization; positive ions (e.g., sodium or calcium) flow into the postsynaptic neuron; more likely to generate action potential
- IPSP (Inhibitory postsynaptic potential): hyperpolarization; negative ions (e.g., chloride) enter the postsynaptic neuron or positive ions (e.g., potassium) leave the neuron; less likely to generate action potential
Brain death, coma, vegetative state, minimally conscious state, Locked in syndrom How aware and arousable are patients in the different states?
Cortex
a) how many layers does it have
b) what are the processing steps / typical input output circuit
a) Six layers
b) input layer IV --> layer II/III --> output layer V (canonical microcircuit)
a)Where are grid cells and place cells located?
b) Which two cell types influence grid cells and how?
c) Function of place cells
a) Grid cells - Entorhinal cortex, Place cells - Hippocampus
b) Head direction cells: direction of move, speed cells: speed of motion; provide the information to update grid cell firing
c) Spatial orientation
Hedonic value of food
a) what happens when yummy food is always available?
b) how dynamic is the hedonic value of food and why is that useful for the animal?
a) binge eating
b) The hedonic value of food is dynamic because it can change over time, allowing the animal to seek and explore a variety of foods, ensuring a balanced diet and maximizing nutritional intake. The hedonic value of the food depends on its availablity -> decreased reward if food is available for an extended time. Maybe allows the animal to conserve energy in searching for food?
Define H.oeconomicus and describe how it differs from H. sapiens
Homo oeconomicus: theoretical person who always makes the same rational decisions and maximized utility; has absolute preferences, i.e., never changing regardless of the comparison
Homo sapiens: has relative preferences, i.e., shift depending on the objects that are being compared; confused by uncertainty/risk; shows framing and endowment effects and has difficulty to assess value in the future (delay discounting) Quick and dirty for mechanisms in decision making: lateral areas are active in rational decisions and medial areas are active in quick, emotional decisions
Difference between short term and working memory
Short-term memory: temporary information storage; passive sensory trace (e.g., remember a tone)
Working memory: storage and manipulation; active exploitation of long-term memory (e.g., remember start of sentence to know its meaning at the end of it)"
Theory of mind
a) Which experiment can be used to prove TOM
b) Which area is active during TOM
a) Experiment: food storing behavior in birds --> changing food cache if they know they had been observed while storing food, but only when they already had stolen food themselves
b) Area active during TOM: prefrontal cortex (mammals) and Nidopallium caudolaterale (birds)
What is the framing effect? Which brain region is involved?
a) Framing effect: putting a decision into a specific context
b) Involved brain region: dorsomedial prefrontal cortex
(The framing effect is a cognitive bias where people’s decisions are influenced by how information is presented, rather than just the facts themselves. Example:
Option A: “This surgery has a 90% survival rate.”
Option B: “This surgery has a 10% death rate.”
)
Is the human cortex special? If yes, why?
Yes: Compared to other mammals (not to other primates) and birds, the human cortex is special with its six-layers which include a granular layer IV for fusing and integrating information. Additionally, the high number of forebrain neurons is highly relevant for complex cognition.
No: Cortex is not different to cortex in other primates.
Depression
a) Define re-uptake inhibition
b) What neurotransmitters are essential?
a) Normally: After a short time, leftover transmitters are going back into the pre-synapsis via autoreceptors. Blocking: Transmitters are longer in the synaptic cleft --> increased effect
b) Dopamine, Serotonine, Norepinephrine
LTP
a) what was the first area it was described in?
b) which receptors are essential?
a) Hippocampus
b) NMDA & AMPA
(LTP stands for Long-Term Potentiation, a long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons. It’s a key mechanism underlying learning and memory.)
Glasgow coma scale: Describe + Name the 3 Tests
Scoring for damage in brain and if the patient is in coma or not.
Tests: open eyes (spontaneously or stimulated), verbal communication, motor response
Draw the Wernike-Gschwind model
Layer 4
a) is L4 thicker in the sensor cortex or the motor cortex
b) why?
The layer IV is thicker in the sensor cortex than in the motor cortex, because there we need to integrate more input information.
a) Why is the enteric nervous system called little brain?
b) Where is it located?
c) How is it connected to the central nervous system?
a) Very high density of neurons, can work on its own, same chemicals and cells as the brain
b) gastrointestinal tract
c) via the parasympathetic division of the ANS
a) Name three famous patiens in the history of cognitive neuroscience and the scientists who worked with them
b) Describe their lesion areas and the main impaired function with it
1) H.M. -> Brenda Milner, Lesion: Hippocampus, Impaired function: Storing memories
2) Phineas Gage -> Harlow, Lesion: Prefrontalcotex, Impaired function: change of personality, impaired decision making
3) Leborgne -> Broca, Lesion: Broca-Area, Impaired function: Language Production
Which theories are there to describe the mechanisms behind working memory?
Persistent (like short term memory)
Transient (WM stored in bursts of oscillatory neural activity, gamma and beta waves)
Silent (stored in the altered synaptic weights of the network)
These three states reflect different modes by which the brain may store and manipulate information in working memory:
What it means: Neurons keep firing (spiking) continuously to maintain information.
Example: A neuron in prefrontal cortex stays active during a memory delay.
Associated with: Classical views of working memory in the prefrontal cortex (e.g., Fuster, Goldman-Rakic).
Pro: Easy to detect experimentally (via electrophysiology).
Con: Energy-costly; doesn’t always explain memory over long delays or distraction.
What it means: Neurons fire only briefly, and information is maintained in short-lived bursts or dynamic patterns.
Example: Brief spikes of activity that encode and refresh memory content.
Associated with: Dynamic coding or activity-silent models.
Idea: Memory is refreshed or reactivated only when needed.
What it means: Memory is stored in temporary changes in synaptic weights, without ongoing spiking.
No firing, but information is still there — can be reactivated by cues or stimulation.
Supported by:
Short-term synaptic plasticity
EEG/MEG decoding studies showing reactivation without continuous activity
Theoretical work: Mongillo et al. (2008), Stokes (2015)
Name all five cell types associated with spatial recognition
Place, grid, head direction, speed, border
Pathway of addiction: Which brain areas are involved and what neurotransmitters are essential?
VTA -> NAc & VTA -> PFC
Ventral tegmental area, Nucleus Accumbens
Dopamine, GABA, Glutamate
Brainstem
a) What is part of the brainstem?
b) Which midbrain area is crucial in the development of Parkinsons?
a) Myelencephalon, Pons in Metencephalon, Mesencephalon
b) Substantia nigra
a) Which two wave oscillations are present during sleep and anaesthesia?
b) Are they intrathalamic or thalamocortical?
a) alpha and delta waves
b) thalamocortical
Name 5 symptoms of the frontal lobe syndrome
damage of higher-order cognitive functioning, dysexecutive syndrome, failure to plan, disturbance of working memory, disturbance of language and speech production, disturbance of social behavior
Single neurons firing
a) Who described it first?
b) Which experiment did they use?
a) Hitzig and Fritsch in the "Ueber die elektrische Erregbarkeit des Grosshirns" (1870)
b) Experiment: Galvanic stimulation (DC) of dog cortex elicited characteristic contractions of the head and limbs --> were able to map out the motor cortex and identify specific areas that, when stimulated, produced movement in distinct parts of the body
Granular cortex
a) what is special about it
b) why is it so important for cognition
a) only in primates --> Layer IV
b) important to integrate and fuse information
Define a psychotropic drug
chemical substances that change brain function and result in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness or behavior
Which two afferents in the nucleus arcuatus follow a
a) high Leptin level?
b) low Leptin level?
a) α-MSH, CART
b) NPY, AgRP
In the arcuate nucleus (nucleus arcuatus) of the hypothalamus, two key populations of neurons respond to leptin levels, which reflect body fat stores. Leptin is a hormone secreted by adipose tissue.
Thinking about the differences between avian and mammalian brains, what is necessary for complex cognition?
Different architectures, but high number of neurons in the forebrain in common -> requirement for complex cognition similar area: PFC & nidopallium caudolaterale
Explain the reward discounting effect
- rewards that occur in the future have some risk of not being collected -> value is discounted- the delay discounting curve is quite steep, the value of a high reward drops rapidly to almost none if it is in the future- humans prefer options with immediate reward
Which part of the PFC is active if irrational fast decisions are suppressed?
lateral prefrontal cortex is important for suppressing fast (irrational) decisions
Describe three brain oscillation frequencies and one typical activity it can be seen at
theta: dreams, deep meditation, creativity, reduced consciousness
gamma: heightened perception, learning, problem solving, cognitive processing
Draw the spike-orientation modell and explain it
OR
Draw the spike-orientation curve and explain it
Name 2 clinical tests to check brain death
a) Which two neurons are part of the autonomous nervous system before reaching the organ?
b) Which NTs are present in para. and symp.?
c) Name one exception
a) pre- and postganglionic neurons
b) acetylcholine is present in both, epinephrine and norepinephrine only in sympathetic postganglionic neurons
c) sweat glands, part of the sympathetic division but uses only acetylcholine
In which axes can the Prefrontal cortex be organized? Which features/function are linked to them?
Medio-lateral axis (intero- and exteroceptive): cognitive control, decision-making, working memory, attention, and emotional regulation; mediodorsal thalamic projections to PFC (
from:abstract, high-level goals, multitasking, and planning over long time spans (e.g., future intentions)
to: concrete, immediate actions and motor control)
Ventro-dorsal axis (what and where): ? cognitive control, working memory, attention, rule-based decision-making
Rostro-caudal axis (more and less abstract):
Self-referential processing, decision-making involving personal values, social cognition
rule-following, task execution
Which subcortical brain structure sends such strong projections to the prefrontal cortex (PFC) that it has become part of the criteria for defining the PFC?
mediodorsal (MD) nucleus of the thalamus
mediodorsal thalamic projections
Do rodents have a PFC?
Yes, a medial PFC. Mammals have a PFC and rodents are mammals. BUT: We should rather ask more more functionally --> How do rodents solve complex cognitive tasks? It is the behavior, not the cortex that is selected by evolution
a) Which 2 different types of memory can be distinguished?
b) What the difference in recalling them?
c) State the full name of the hippocampal memory cycle
d) Which kind of receptors are important regarding the CA1 area?
a) Explicit (declarative) and Implicit (nondeclarative)
b) Explicit: by concious effort, Implicit: unconciously
c) Papez Circuit - Perforant path -> dentate gyrus -> Mossy fibers -> CA4 -> Schaffer collaterals -> C1
d) AMPA and NMDA
c) Papez Circuit (also called the Papez Memory Circuit)
It describes the loop involved in memory consolidation and emotional processing. Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Anterior thalamic nuclei → Cingulate cortex → Parahippocampal gyrus → back to Hippocampus
Link the drug to their function: Benzodiazepine, Barbiturate, Nicotin, LSD, MDMAHallucinogen, stimulating, depressing, anxiolytic
Benzodiazepine: Anxiolytic
Barbiturate: Depressing
Nicotine: Stimulating
LSD: Hallucinogen
MDMA: Stimulating
a) What is the difference between bulimia nervosa and binge eating?
b) What neurotransmitter systems are disturbed in anorexia nervosa?
a) Bulimia nervosa is binge eating with subsequent purging. Binge eating is without subsequent purging.
Explain the vertical and the horizontal electode penetration in the hypercolumn.
Vertical: neurons with the same preferred orientations.
Oblique or horizontal: systematic change in orientation across the cortical surface. There is a lack of orientation-selective cells in layer IV (input layer).
What are the parameters of oscillation?
amplitude, phase, and frequency
Name 5 executive cognitive functions
Attention, (Working) memory, Temporal Integration, Planning, Decision-making, Inhibitory Control, Monitoring
Which drugs resemble which neurotransmitter?
Acetylcholin: nicotine
Noradrenalin/adrenalin: amphetamine, cocain, LSD
Dopamine: amphetamine, cocain, heroin, cannabis, LSD
Serotonin: amphetamine, cocain, LSD
Glutamate: AMPA, NMDA
GABA: alcohol, barbiturate
Histamine: opiates
Which neurotransmitter leads to which mood?
Acetylcholine: arousal, focused attention, promoting learning
Noradrenaline/Adrenaline: arousal, attention
Dopamine: pleasure, reward, motivation, curiosity
Serotonin: sedation, sleep and stress regulation, appetite, memory, sexual desire
Glutamate: excitatory
GABA: inhibitory, relaxation
Histamine: wakefulness, inflammation
The Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) is involved in psychosis. Which pathways target brain region and disease?
The mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways originating from the VTA target brain regions such as the nucleus accumbens and PFC --> dysfunction in these pathways is implicated in psychotic disorders, e.g., schizophrenia
Same side effects of antipsychotics and antidepressants?
drowsiness, dizziness, dry mouth, and gastrointestinal disturbances (Nausea)?
Weight gain,
Sexual dysfunction
Whats the Theory of mind (TOM)?
Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, beliefs, desires, emotions, and intentions, which may be different from your own.
Perspective-taking & Guessing what someone else is thinking or feeling.
Typically develops between ages 3 and 5 in children.
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