Task performance vs contextual performance
- Task performance/in role behavior (behavior according to requirments)
o Predicted by ability
- Contextual performance/ extra.role behavior (on top of requirements)
o Predicted by personality and motivation
o Includes organizational citizenship behavior (discretionary =cannot be directly enforced)
Peter Principle
- If good performance is rewarded by moving up in the hierarchy, people rise to their level of incompetence
o -> successful performance management should entail more than rewarding current performance
what performance appraisal looks like for employees,supervisors, organizations
- Employees: career advancement,Feedback
- Supervisors: Goal attainment, Employment decisions, Opportunity to interact
- Organizations: Productivity
Two components of appraisal process
- Performance assessment/evaluations and feedback/development
o Evaluation often dominating/ very hard for leaders to do both separate into separate convos for more balance
Types and Quality features of Performance measurements/Criteria
- Objective (quantifiable units or sales) vs subjective (judgement)
- Absolute (compared to self) vs relative appraisal (compared to others)
§ Comparative Methods
· ranking, paired comparison
· forced distribution ( originals factory not really applicable for knowledge intensive jobs, improve quality but damage moral and teamwork)
o performance might not be normally distributed but Pareto distributed
§ -> small group of “star” performers
§ individual Performance
· standardized rating scales
o Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) multiple Behavior examples provided by scale
o Behavior observation Scale (BOS) -> one Behavior example is rated at a time
o “Features”of Criterions
- Criterion relevance
- Criterion contamination (contains elements that are not relevant/distract from performance evaluation)
- Criterion deficiency (degree to which it is not perfect assessment)
- Criterion usefulness
Comparing data sources of Performance appraisal
- Self appraisal
- Subordinate appraisal (use depends on the context/if there ara other sources)
- Peer appraisal (on the rise in use and importance (cuz more teamwork+ high overlap peer and supervisor rating)
o Team appraisals (either team as a whole or peer appraisal among team members)
- 360 Degree Appraisal (hard to appliy and mixed empirical findings)
Biases (overview)
- Systematic biases
o Response tendency errors (Leniency,Severity, Central tendency)
o Halo effect
o Recency effect
o Actor-observer Bias (greater emphasis on disposition than situation)
o Personal biases
§ Gender bias mechanisms
· higher bar
o Gender beliefs activate in evaluative contexts
§ - lower status = lower performance expectations and evaluation of same performance
o Women have to provide more evidence to be labeled as exceptional
· Backlash (criticism to get women to fall in line with gender norms oe. Gender policing)
o Individuals are perceived as violating status expectations backlash
§ Woman cant act like men only moderately agentic behavior
· Consequences
o Higher marks on likability
o Less high marks on communal behavior (helpfulness/considerate)
o Perceived lack of technical skill = suffer professionally
o Taking charge ≠ highest performance (as it is the case for men)
o Women = too aggressive /Men =too soft
Avoiding Gender Bias
o Use concrete performance
o Transparent process
o Holding managers accountable for reviews
Influence of feedback
- 2021 SHRM Study
o 18% Women 25% Men cry after annual performance review
o 57% felt like they had to compete w coworkers
o Uncertainty reduction theory ppl still want to get feedback
- Unclear job expectations = a primary cause of workplace stress
- Dissatisfaction with appraisal (independent of results) leads to:
o Work-family conflict
o Stress at work
o Job dissatisfaction
o Less commitment/likely to leave
- Psychological relevance
o Depends on how information is presented and relationship between supervision and employee
§ Value employee input in review process
§ Appraiser training (constructive feedback)
Features of good Feedback
o Both sides should prepare
o Descriptive and specific
§ Focus on changeable behavior no criticism
§ Procactive and coactive: provide change direction and need for change, agree on remedy together
o No comparisons previous behavior as benchmark
o Consider needs of employee,employer and situation
- Instrumental vs value expressive participation
- Instrumental (to influence outcomes) vs value expressive participation (not to influence but to be heard)
o Value-expressive = stronger connection: participation -> appraisal reaction
o But supervisor employee relationship even stronger influence
Uncertainty reduction theory
- (urge to seek information to reduce uncertainty)
o Proactive behavior
§ Inquiry
§ Motitoring (for cues that provide feedback)
§ Indirect inquiry
Empathetic communication style
§ I-messages,
§ asking for opinions,
§ praise
§ expressing feelings,
§ but also minimal verbal encouragement
o Influences whether employees speak up
- Task focus vs Relational focus
o Leaders can steer employee participation at micro level
o Task Focus
· (Development) Planning
· Clarifying goals and responsibilities
· Monitoring processis and performance (Performance appraisal)
· (Pronblem-solving)
§ leads to passive follower agreement (empirically backed)
o Relational focus
· Support/appreciation
· Develop Trust
· Particioatory decisions
· Followers take initiative in problem solving
· (Praise/positive as well as neutral behavior/ just listening)
§ leads to active follower participation and higher perceived meeting effectiveness (on both sides)
· Interaction instead of leader behavior important for perceived success of appraisal
Current trends in performance appraisals
o Focus on developmental feedback
o Team based appraisal
o More frequent check-ins
Disagreement episodes (prevalence of content, affective tone, and Leader reactions)
Theories that can be applied to performance evaluations
- Goal setting Theory (difficult and specific goals = stronger performance -> SMART Goals)
- Control theory
o Discrepancy between performance and goal
§ Possible response: change behavior, change goal, ignore
- Feedback intervention Theory (Feedback can lower performance depending on cues)
o Cue levels: self attentional, focal task, task details
o Attention to task level -> increase in learning/motivation
o Attention to self -> affective reactions -> decreased performance
§ -> avoid comparisons w colleagues
- Open Systems theory (more integrative -> interaction between individual and situation, continuous process)
Basic Vocab
Training
- Training = planned effort to facilitate learning, retention, transfer of job behavior
o Learning is at the core of the efforts (Training and development)
- Development = wider and long term perspective
- Informal learning (self initiated, not structured) vs formal training
Areas of employee training
- New employee orientation
- Training Retraining ? and continuing education
o Most organisations use refresher courses/continuing educations to maintaion proficiency
o Some professions require continuing education (eg. health care)
- Retirement planning
o Study suggest to think about retirement early -> contribution to retirement savings = positive outcome (healthier) for employee and organization
§ Training departments often offer assistance
- Career development
o Increased awareness for the need to support development of employee career
§ Development = more productive , satisfied, loyal
o Variety of programs (counseling, planning, workshops)
- Ethical behavior /Diversity/harassment
- Team training
o Critical for certain professions (airtravel, healthcare)
o Components
§ Understanding knowledge and skill of teammembers
§ Training teamwork
§ Attaining shared goals/work procedures
o Goal: raise awareness among employees, change neg attitudes/behavior
o Improve collaboration -> focus on developing tolerance
o Influences on effectiveness
§ Tolerance ( accepting coexistence) vs (forced) appreciation(can create cover up or conflict)
§ Paired with other diversity intitiatives (awareness + skills)
§ Longer training
§ Type of training
· Counteract necative effects improved contact quality
· Facilitate positive effects more knowledge transfer
§ Leaders
· Create diversity specific climate/mindset
· Leading Diversity Model: Adjust leadership behavior to the dominant process in the team (eg. more person or task focused)
· Enhance social interaction
· Participate in diversity training
o Current trends: ethics training for broader range of workers and training for teams
Theoretical base of employee training (root = basic learning theories, but also other theories smahed in from book)
- Social learning theory -> modeling as Key process
- Cognitive learning theories -> Workers as information processors (storing, retrieving, using information)
o Useful for complex thought processes
- Kolbs learning Styles (starts to vomit):
Unique approach to learning on two axis ( feeling vs thinking , doing vs watching)
- Contingency/best fit Models
o Vertical fit (match between training and organizational goals in strategic direction)
§ Quality/innovation vs efficiency
o Horizontal fit = coherent HR system
- Ability motivation(to participate) opportunity(to participate) Model (organizational performance is increased by providing these things to employees)
Key issues when designing training programs
- Transfer
o Influenced by degree of similarity between the tasks in Training vs Job
o Positive affect to feedback/reinforcement ?? (random)
o Recognized value of new skill to improve work =effective transfer
o
o Decline in training effectiveness from lower to higher dimensions in Kirksmthsmth model issue with the opportunity to perform
o Motive acquisition theory (three human needs that drive behavior)
§ achievement,
§ affiliation (acceptance of others),
§ power (over others)
o Expectancy theory (basically erwartungs mal Wert theorie -> both linked to training transfer (but valence/instrumentality can be more important)
- Program structure
o Feedback
§ More = better (abut no obeverload
§ Positive better than negative
§ Must be immediate
o Practice makes perfect
o Whole learning better than part learning (whatever that means ?)
o More structure =better
- Trainee readiness, Personality and Ability
o Trainability = ability, perceived work environment, personality/attitudes
o Pre training motivation
o Personality influences:
§ Conscientiousness
§ Goal orientation (performance, learning or both)
§ Locus of control (internal more dedicated)
§ Cognitive ability (best performance predictor)
§ Self efficacy
Model for successful training programs
1. Identify training needs on all levels(Training needs Analysis) : Organization analysis, task analysis, Person analysis
2. Establish training objective (specific and measurable)
3. Method selection
a. On site (on the job, Apprenticeship, Job rotation
b. Off site (seminars, Web based, simulation techniques)
4. Implement training ( provide rationale and feedback -> employees and organization should feel positively about training)
5. Evaluating training (Kirkpatriks dimensional model of training evaluation)
a. One- shot instruction
i. Level 1: Reaction (Satisfaction)
ii. Level 2: Learning
b. Embedded (10 Weeks)
i. Level 3: Behavior (what is applied in practice)
ii. Level 4: Results (Are learners information literate ?)
Return of investment (ROI)
- Most common business ratio : Results divided by Training cost (above 1 = Training is beneficial)
Current trends in Training
- Proactivity to seek learning becomes increasingly important for employability
- Globalization, Innovation pressure, Automation -> continuous learning as organizational response
- Ai usage in training and development
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