Lesson 2

• Interaction with internal & external environment

• Adaptive function

• Shows patterns or regularities

• Develops from conception to death

• Continuous flow that must be segmented into behavioral unitsles

1️⃣ Subject (species → population → group → dyad → individual)

2️⃣ Behavior (macro ↔ micro units)

3️⃣ Context (field ↔ lab; manipulation ↔ spontaneity)

• Species: universal behaviors (innate or learned)

• Population: behaviors specific to one population

• Group: behaviors shared within a social group

• Dyad: interactions between two related individuals

• Individual: behavior of a single subject

• Molecular (analytic): small, specific acts (postures, gestures)

• Molar (synthetic): broader, abstract categories (feeding, aggression)A molar segment can contain several molecular ones.

It defines where and how behavior is studied—

• natural habitat vs. captivity—balancing:

  • Degree of control (manipulation ↔ spontaneity)

  • Ecological validity (natural ↔ artificial)

  • Method (observational ↔ experimental)

A detailed inventory of all behavioral patterns (repertoire) of a species.

It includes natural behavioral units meaningful to the species’ umwelt (Jakob von Uexküll).

A partial list of behaviors observed in limited periods; ideally, it should approximate the full ethogram.

• Individual – behaviors without social interaction

• Social – interactions among conspecifics

• Interspecific – interactions with other species

1️⃣ Open observation (field notes)

2️⃣ Behavior description (topographic)

3️⃣ Interpretation (functional + causal)

4️⃣ Sequence analysis (patterns of behavior)

An objective listing of visible behavioral units relevant to research goals (e.g., “opens mouth showing canines”).

Links behavior to its context and observable consequences—explains what the behavior does.

Identifies the internal motivation (e.g., hunger, anger) responsible for the behavior, supported by indicators.

Continuous observations revealing typical behavior sequences (patterns), showing preferred orders of actions.

They must be clear, objective, comprehensive, mutually exclusive, and homogeneous in detail (molarity level).

• Structural/topographic: “Show anogenital area”

• Functional: “Play face”

• Causal: “Sexual presentation”

• Event: short, transient acts (e.g., jump, bite) → count frequency

• State: lasting acts (e.g., rest, grooming) → measure duration & frequency

1️⃣ Define problem

2️⃣ Preliminary observation

3️⃣ Set goals

4️⃣ Define units (ethogram)

5️⃣ Research design

6️⃣ Pilot test/reliability

7️⃣ Systematic data collection

8️⃣ Statistical analysis

9️⃣ Interpretation & conclusions

To ensure two independent observers obtain the same data → objective, replicable results.

Observing selected individuals.

• Ad libitum: any subject anytime (non-systematic)

• Focal sampling: one identified individual per session

• Scan sampling: short, repeated observations of all individuals

Recording only specific behaviors (e.g., grooming) across the group

; useful for rare or relevant events (all occurrence sampling).

Recording every behavioral change in real time (“transition-triggered”).

• Provides durations, prevalence, and sequences. Requires high attention.

Recording behavior at fixed time intervals (“time-triggered”).

• Easier but less precise—large intervals reduce accuracy.

• Frequency (F) – number of times behavior occurs

• Relative frequency (F′) = F / total behaviors

• Rate (t) = F / observation time• Duration (D) – total time spent

• Prevalence (P) = D / total observation time