What is the primary goal of creating 'valuable virality' in marketing?
To create content that is not only shared but also beneficial to the brand by boosting evaluation or purchase.
According to Akpinar and Berger (2017), how do emotional appeals in advertising compare to informational appeals in terms of shareability?
Emotional appeals are more likely to be shared than informational appeals.
Why do informational appeals, as described by Akpinar and Berger (2017), tend to boost brand evaluations and purchase intent?
Because the brand is an integral part of the ad content, providing information about its features and benefits.
What type of advertisement combines the benefits of both emotional and informational appeals to achieve 'valuable virality'?
Emotional brand-integral ads.
What is the key characteristic of an 'emotional brand-integral' ad?
The brand is made an integral part of the narrative in an emotional appeal.
Akpinar and Berger (2017) found a negative correlation between an ad's appeal type and its brand integralness, suggesting brands often trade off between creating emotional ads and making the brand _____ to the ad.
integral
What were the two key mechanisms identified by Akpinar and Berger (2017) that explain why brand-integral ads boost brand-related outcomes?
More favorable inferences about persuasive attempts and increased brand knowledge.
In the context of advertising, what is an 'informational appeal'?
An appeal designed to target cognition by using objective information describing a brand’s attributes or benefits.
In the context of advertising, what is an 'emotional appeal'?
An appeal designed to target emotions by using mood, music, and other emotion-eliciting strategies.
The field study by Akpinar and Berger (2017) found that for emotional ads, making the brand integral to the narrative did not _____ sharing.
decrease
What is the key difference between electronic word-of-mouth on social sites (sWOM) and traditional face-to-face word-of-mouth (WOM)?
sWOM is written, broadcast one-to-many to a social network, while WOM is typically one-to-one oral communication.
According to Eisingerich et al. (2015), why are consumers generally less willing to engage in sWOM than traditional WOM?
Because of the greater perceived social risk associated with broadcasting a recommendation to a larger, more diverse network.
What psychological need did Eisingerich et al. (2015) find mitigates the difference in willingness to offer sWOM versus WOM?
The need to self-enhance.
In Eisingerich et al.'s (2015) research, how does making social risk more salient affect the willingness to engage in sWOM versus WOM?
It amplifies the difference, making people even less willing to offer sWOM compared to WOM.
For consumers with a high need for self-enhancement, the willingness to offer _____ can exceed their willingness to offer traditional WOM.
sWOM (social word-of-mouth)
According to Kaplan and Haenlein (2011), what is the definition of viral marketing?
Electronic word-of-mouth where a marketing message is transmitted in an exponentially growing way, often via social media.
What are the three conditions that must be met to create a viral marketing epidemic?
Giving the right message to the right messengers in the right environment.
Who are the three types of 'messengers' required for a viral marketing epidemic?
Market mavens, social hubs, and salespeople.
Concept: Market Mavens (in viral marketing)
Individuals who have a large amount of marketplace information and proactively discuss it with others, often being the first to receive and transmit a message.
Concept: Social Hubs (in viral marketing)
People with an exceptionally large number of social connections who can serve as bridges between different subcultures.
What characteristic must a 'message' have to achieve viral potential?
It must be memorable and interesting enough to be passed on, often by triggering an emotional response.
What is 'Dunbar's Number' and how does it relate to the 'environment' condition for viral marketing?
It is the maximum number of stable social relationships (around 150) an individual can maintain; messengers will only pass on a message if they think it's not something everyone within this circle already knows.
Kaplan and Haenlein (2011) categorize viral marketing campaigns into four groups based on initiator (company vs. consumer) and outcome (positive vs. negative). What are these four groups?
Nightmares, strokes-of-luck, homemade issues, and triumphs.
The JetBlue operational breakdown in 2007, which led to a wave of negative customer comments on social media, is an example of which type of viral marketing campaign?
A nightmare.
The spontaneous 'Diet Coke and Mentos experiment' videos, which led to a 20% increase in Mentos sales, are an example of which type of viral marketing campaign?
A stroke-of-luck.
Sony's fake blog 'All I Want for Christmas Is a PSP,' which was quickly discovered and resulted in brand damage, is an example of which type of viral marketing campaign?
A homemade issue.
Burger King's 'Whopper Sacrifice' campaign, where users deleted 10 Facebook friends for a free burger, is an example of which type of viral marketing campaign?
A triumph.
What is a key piece of advice regarding the role of traditional communication in a viral marketing campaign?
Viral marketing needs to be backed up by traditional forms of communication to maintain momentum after the initial buzz dies out.
Why should companies avoid excessive planning and intervention once a viral marketing campaign is launched?
Because a truly compelling campaign needs to stand on its own and develop its own dynamics; too much control can kill it.
What is 'product-influencer fit' in the context of influencer marketing?
The congruence between the characteristics of an influencer and the characteristics of the product they endorse.
According to Janssen et al. (2022), what two factors interact to contribute to positive advertising outcomes in influencer marketing?
Product-influencer fit and the influencer's number of followers.
What are the two key mediating processes that explain how product-influencer fit and number of followers affect advertising outcomes?
Perceived credibility of the influencer and identification with the influencer.
In Janssen et al.'s (2022) study, influencers with a high number of followers were liked more and their endorsements were more effective, but only when what condition was met?
The endorsed product had a good fit with the influencer's self-branded image.
Perceived influencer credibility consists of what two subcomponents?
Trustworthiness and expertise.
Identification with an influencer consists of what two subcomponents?
Perceived similarity and wishful identification.
In the study by Janssen et al. (2022), the positive effect of product-influencer fit on outcomes was mediated by credibility for all influencers, but by identification only for influencers with a _____ number of followers.
high
The study by Janssen et al. (2022) showed that the positive effects of having a high number of followers were mediated by credibility and identification only when there was a _____ product-influencer fit.
good
According to the HBR article by Leung et al. (2022), what is the general relationship between an influencer's number of followers and marketing ROI?
The more followers an influencer has, the more impactful a partnership will be, leading to higher ROI.
What is the 'Goldilocks effect' that Leung et al. (2022) identified regarding an influencer's posting frequency?
The highest ROI is achieved with a medium level of posting activity (around five posts per week), as too little is not current and too much creates fatigue.
Leung et al. (2022) also found a 'Goldilocks effect' for follower-brand fit. What does this mean?
The best results occur when there is some, but not too much, alignment between followers' interests and the brand's domain.
How does an influencer's originality (posting their own content vs. sharing others') impact marketing ROI?
Influencers who post a greater proportion of original content achieve higher ROI as they appear more knowledgeable and authentic.
What did Leung et al. (2022) find about the optimal tone for an influencer's post?
A medium-positive tone is most effective; posts that are too positive can seem disingenuous and backfire.
Why do influencer posts that include links to a brand’s social media or website tend to perform better?
Because the links offer consumers important additional information about the content, making them more likely to engage.
According to Leung et al. (2022), is it generally a good strategy to use influencers to promote a new product launch?
No, this can be counterproductive, as ROI for posts announcing new products was found to be significantly lower.
What is the formal definition of Online Influencer Marketing (OIM) provided by Leung et al. (2022)?
A strategy where a firm selects and incentivizes online influencers to engage their followers to leverage the influencers' unique resources to promote offerings.
According to Leung et al. (2022), what are the three unique, necessary features of Online Influencer Marketing (OIM)?
Firms select and incentivize influencers; influencers engage followers for commercial purposes; firms leverage influencers' unique resources.
How does OIM differ from organic word-of-mouth (WOM)?
In OIM, firms purposefully select and pay influencers to spread WOM, whereas organic WOM occurs without direct prompting by marketers.
What is a key difference between OIM and celebrity endorsements regarding content control?
In OIM, firms relinquish substantial content control to influencers, whereas firms maintain full control over celebrity endorsements.
Leung et al. (2022) use social capital theory to suggest OIM leverages what four key influencer resources?
Follower networks, personal positioning, communication content, and follower trust.
What are the two 'targeting benefits' of OIM that stem from leveraging an influencer's follower network?
The ability to target consumer segments with high levels of segment homogeneity and segment dynamism.
Why do influencers' follower networks naturally exhibit high 'segment homogeneity'?
Because followers self-select to follow influencers whose content and identity resonate with them, creating groups of like-minded people.
How does OIM help firms reach segments with high 'segment dynamism'?
It allows firms to reach dynamically changing consumer segments as followers' needs and interests change, reflected in who they follow or unfollow over time.
What are the four benefits of OIM identified in the conceptual framework by Leung et al. (2022)?
Targeting benefits, positioning benefits, creativity benefits, and trust benefits.
What are the two potential threats of OIM identified in the conceptual framework by Leung et al. (2022)?
Content control threats and customer retention threats.
According to Rosario et al. (2020), eWOM is an umbrella term that should denote any online _____ content about products.
consumer-generated
What is the revised, more inclusive definition of eWOM proposed by Rosario et al. (2020)?
Consumer-generated, consumption-related communication that employs digital tools and is directed primarily to other consumers.
How is eWOM conceptually different from User-Generated Content (UGC)?
eWOM is necessarily consumption-related, whereas UGC is a broader term for any content created by users, regardless of topic.
What organizing framework does Rosario et al. (2020) use to synthesize eWOM research?
The Motivation-Opportunity-Ability (MOA) framework applied across three stages of the eWOM process.
What are the three distinct, non-linear stages in the eWOM process conceptualized by Rosario et al. (2020)?
eWOM creation, eWOM exposure, and eWOM evaluation.
In the eWOM creation stage, what are some primary motivations for consumers to post content?
Altruism, social value, hedonic benefits, impression management, balance restoration (venting), and economic incentives.
In the eWOM exposure stage, what is a key utility-driven motivation for consumers to seek out eWOM?
To reduce pre-purchase uncertainty and the perception of risk, especially for new, expensive, or complex products.
Besides active search, how else might a consumer be exposed to eWOM?
Through accidental exposure while using social media, often driven by FOMO (fear of missing out).
In the eWOM evaluation stage, what happens to consumer information processing when their involvement is low?
They tend to rely on peripheral cues like sender credibility, helpfulness scores, or personal similarity rather than deeply analyzing the message content.
How can marketers facilitate the 'ability' of consumers to create eWOM?
By offering guidelines on how to create useful and valuable eWOM, thus improving their skill to review a product.
How can marketers strategically restrict eWOM exposure on their own platforms?
By controlling the display, such as requiring a minimum volume threshold before reviews are shown or limiting the number of reviews per page.
What is 'webcare' in the context of eWOM evaluation?
Marketers' practice of engaging with eWOM, for example, by directly and publicly responding to eWOM senders.
How does the concept of 'valuable virality' address a potential weakness of campaigns that only focus on getting shares?
It recognizes that high share counts are of limited value if they don't also improve brand evaluation or increase purchase.
According to Kaplan and Haenlein (2011), the fact that people have, on average, a total social network of no more than 150 contacts is known as _____.
Dunbar's Number
What distinguishes Online Influencer Marketing (OIM) from a seeding or viral marketing campaign?
OIM involves a formal incentive structure and requires influencers to create and promote content, whereas seeding agents are only encouraged to share firm-generated content.
Why might a high follower-brand fit in an influencer campaign be suboptimal, according to Leung et al. (2022)?
While the content is relevant, it competes for attention with a lot of similar content, potentially causing followers to lose interest.
The MOA framework, used by Rosario et al. (2020), posits that the degree to which people process information is based on what three factors?
Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability.
In Janssen et al.'s (2022) study on Instagram, how were the 'good-fit' and 'poor-fit' conditions for a health and fitness influencer manipulated?
The influencer endorsed either a protein shake (good-fit) or ice cream (poor-fit).
What is the key danger of using an excessively positive tone in influencer marketing posts?
The post may come across as disingenuous or inauthentic, leading to poor engagement.
In the context of the eWOM process, what does 'eWOM evaluation' refer to?
The stage where a consumer (the eWOM receiver) processes and assesses the eWOM to inform their decisions.
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