What is communication (objective and functional definition)?
An action performed by an animal that transmits information and modifies the behavior of another animal.
When do two animals communicate?
When the behavior of one animal (producer or transmitter) affects the behavior of another (receiver) and
there is a social interaction between their actions.
What condition must the transmitted message fulfill?
The message must be meaningful.
What types of communication are distinguished?
Genuine communication
Fortuitous communication
What is the value of communication in evolutionary terms?
Both the producer and the receiver must obtain a direct or indirect benefit;
otherwise the signal would not be emitted or would be ignored.
What is meant by honesty and deception in communication?
Some signals benefit the producer and take advantage of the receiver to deceive or manipulate.
What is intentional deception?
A form of deception in which the producer deliberately manipulates the receiver.
Under which condition does deception work?
Deception only works when it is rare.
What are the main elements of communication?
Producer – Message (code) – Transmission channel – Receiver – Feedback – Behavior – Context
What is a signal?
Any behavior that transmits information (it can have other functions).
What types of signals are distinguished according to intensity?
Discrete (dichotomous) signals
Gradual (continuous) signals
What characterizes discrete signals?
All-or-nothing signals with no variation in intensity.
Blinks of fireflies.
What characterizes gradual signals?
The intensity of the signal varies depending on the motivation of the animal that produces it.
Canids: movement of the ears and folding of the lips (showing teeth).
What changes with increased intensity in gradual signals?
Increased fear signal
Increased aggressive signal strength
What are general characteristics of signals?
They are usually species-specific, clear (not ambiguous), and economical.
What types of signals are distinguished based on origin?
Expressive or autonomous responses
Intentional movements
Displays or exhibitions
What are expressive or autonomous responses?
Automatic, involuntary responses controlled by the autonomic nervous system.
Color changes, pilo-erection, ridge elevation.
What information do expressive responses provide?
Information about the state of the individual and its reaction to the situation.
What are intentional movements?
Voluntary actions aimed at a goal and clearly related to the effect they want to achieve.
Which functions can intentional movements serve?
Threat, appeasement or conciliation, courtship, territorial defence, regrouping.
The outstretched hand in chimpanzees as a begging gesture.
What are displays or exhibitions?
Signals with an exclusively communicative function.
What characterizes displays?
Exaggerated and stereotyped movements
Highlight colours or special body structures
Sequential structure
What is the evolutionary origin of displays?
They evolved through a process of ritualization (origin: displaced behaviours).
What is stereotypy in ritualization?
Movements with typical intensity, specific duration, and invariable sequence, independent of motivation level.
What is conspicuity in ritualization?
Movements highlight perceptually striking aspects such as colors or structures.
What is redundancy in ritualization?
Repetition of movements and sequences.
How many strictly communicative signals do species usually have?
A limited number (e.g., fish ≈ 10, macaques ≈ 40).
Does a limited number of signals imply a limited number of messages? -> NO
How can transmitted information be increased?
Spatial and temporal context
Producer characteristics
Signal strength
Signal duration
Combination with other signals
Order in signal transmission (syntax)
What are metacommunicative signals?
Nonverbal codes that carry meaning, such as invitations to play or signalling hierarchy status.
What transmission channels are distinguished?
Visual, chemical, acoustic (hearing), tactile, electric.
What general factors characterize transmission channels?
Scope in space,
transmission speed,
ability to overcome obstacles,
use in the dark,
decay in time,
possibility to locate the producer,
energy cost.
What are advantages of the visual channel?
Fast and directional information.
What are disadvantages of the visual channel?
Depends on light and receiver orientation, does not overcome obstacles, does not last in time.
What characterizes the acoustic channel?
Sound vibrations transmitted through air, water, or substrate.
What are advantages and disadvantages of the acoustic channel?
Advantages:
fast, long-distance, no light needed.
Disadvantages:
does not last, inaccurate spatial information, nonspecific receptors.
What characterizes the tactile channel?
Direct contact of body surfaces.
What are main functions of tactile communication?
Greetings, appeasement, comfort, recognition, bonding.
What are the advantages of the tactile channel?
What are the disadvantages of the tactile channel?
Does not last over time
Requires physical proximity
Does not overcome obstacles
Inaccurate structure
Very limited signal range
What characterizes the chemical channel?
Diffusion of substances (pheromones).
What are advantages and disadvantages of chemical communication?
lasts over time, not affected by obstacles, low energy cost.
slow, inaccurate spatial information, hard to change message.
What are pheromones?
Chemicals secreted outside the body that act as signals modifying the behavior of conspecifics.
What is multichannel communication?
Combining signals from different channels to increase effectiveness.
What is noise in communication?
Any interference affecting message transmission.
How does redundancy function?
Repeated transmission compensates for noise.
What are pragmatic systems?
Systems that identify the individual (species, group, age, sex, hierarchy, individual).
What are semantic systems?
Systems related to meaning,
such as alarm, food tracking, care of infants, courtship, social regulation, recruitment.
What characterizes intraspecific communication?
Mostly species-specific codes.
What is interspecific communication?
Communication based on the intersection of intraspecific codes of different species.
What are general interspecific signals?
Less complex signals, such as alarm calls to a common predator.
What are specific interspecific signals?
Strictly interspecific signals that ensure exclusivity (e.g. touches by cleaner fish).
What factors explain shared codes between species?
Phylogenetic proximity (behavioral homology)
and evolutionary convergence (ecological factors).
In the table, what is the scope in space for each channel?
Chemical: Wide
Acoustic: Wide
Visual: Medium
Tactile: Limited
transmission speed for each channel?
Chemical: Slow
Acoustic: Fast
Visual: Fast
Tactile: Fast
which channels overcome obstacles?
Chemical: Yes
Acoustic: Yes
Visual: No
Tactile: No
n the table, which channels can be used in the dark?A:
Visual: No (*!)
Tactile: Yes
In the table, what is the decay in time for each channel?
n the table, how easy is it to locate the producer for each channel?
Chemical: Difficult
Acoustic: Easy
Visual: Easy
Tactile: Easy
In the table, what is the energy cost for each channel?
Chemical: Low
Acoustic: High
Tactile: Low
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