When was the beginning of Neuroscience?
we don´t really know, but
in Neolithic they began to perform trepanation
bronze age: discussion about surgical techniques
Who was the first one who payed attention to brain and mind and what was his opinion?
Hippocrates (400 BCE)
brain and mind are the same
What thought Aristoteles concerning brain functions?
brain´s function is to cool the blood
What exactly is the ventricular theory?
(Galen believes Hippocrates that mind and brain are the same)
frontmost ventricle: common sense
more posterior: other faculties (imagination, …)
fluid forced out of ventricules through nerves cause movement
What is the difference between the believes of Galen and Descartes?
both believe ventricular theory, but
Descartes believes that human possess a God-given soul existing outside the brain = mind-body problem
What´s the difference between dualism and monism?
dualism: mind and body are separate
monism: mind and body are not separate (no separate immaterial soul)
What is the reticular theory and what is the neuron doctrine? adn which one is the correct one?
reticular theory (Golgi) = nerve cells form a continous nerve net/reticulum = interconnected network
neurone doctrine (Cajal) = brain cells are disconnected from one another = correct one!
Broca and Wernicke functions
Broca: production of speech —> inability to speak but to understand
Wernicke: comprension of speech —> inability to understand (sensory aphasia)
What did Otto Loewi find out about the “Vagusstoff”?
nerves communicate via chemicals “Vagusstoff”
=> prove of chemical stimulation
3 different types of synapses
How can we subdivise topographically?
central nervous system (CNS) vs. peripheral nervous system (PNS)
sensory system (brain, spinal cord) vs. motory system (nerves, glia)
How can we subdivise functionally?
somatic nervous system (external environment) vs. visceral nervous system (internal organs)
Which kind of neurotransmitter do exist?
aa
Glutmate
Glycine
amines
Dopamine
Serotonin
other moleculess
ACh
Peptides
Which cells are the grey matter in CNS?
Glial cells
Astrocytes
Microglia
Oligodendrocytes
Oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPC´s)
Astrocytes main function
function in blood brain barrier
regulation of synaptic transmission
Microglia main function
resident macrophages in CNS
Oligodendrocytes main function
formation of myelin sheath around axons in CNS
OPC´s main function
self renewal + generation of oligodendrocytes
What is the function of myelination? Which cells are responsible in CNS and PNS
= white matter
electrical insulator
increases speed of axonal conduction (“saltatory conduction”)
CNS: Oligodendrocytes
PNS: Schwann cells
How do we call the zone between myelination of CNS and PNS?
Redlich-Obersteiner zone
Where do we find white/grey matter in CNS/PNS?
CNS
PNS
grey matter
Cortex, Nuclei
Ganglia
white matter
Tracts
Nerves
How can we subdivise CNS?
Brain (Encephalon) vs spinal cord (Medulla spinalis)
How can we subdivise the brain and the spinal cord?
Brain (Encephalon)
Cerebrum
Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Cerebellum
Truncus encephali
Mesencephalon
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord
functional segments
a = Cerebrum and Cerebellum
b = Truncus encephali
c = Spinal cord
1 = olfactory bulb (Riechkolben)
2 = Cerebrum
3 = Cerebellum
4 = Brain stem (Truncus encephali)
How can we categorise the brain including development aspects?
Forebrain (Cerebrum)
Midbrain (Mesencephalon from Truncus encephali)
Hindbrain (Cerebellum and Pons + Medulla oblongata from Truncus encephali)
On which plane of the brain are we looking at?
Which structure connects the 2 hemispheres of the Cerebrum?
Corpus callosum
What are the functions of the Cerebrum?
Consciousness and awareness (Bewusstsein und Wahrnehmung)
higher cognitive functions
language and communication
locomotor planning and initiation
generation and regulation of emotions
+label
How many lobes can we describe in Telencephalon and which ones?
4 (6)
frontal lobe
temporal lobe
parietal lobe
occipital lobe
(limbic lobe)
(insular lobe)
1 = temporal lobe
2 = frontal lobe
3 = parietal lobe
4 = occipital lobe
5 = Insula
What is the Isocortex?
= Neocortex = grey matter in CNS on the outside of the brain
= 6 layers of neurons
Golgi - Nissl - Markscheiden
I
molecular layer
communication between the columns
II
external granular layer
intracortical information processing, “computation of the brain”
III
external pyramidal layer
IV
internal granular layer
sensory information, afferents from thalamus
V
internal pyramidal layer
motory information, efferents, “output layer”
VI
multiform layer
Layer IV —> Layer II/III —> Layer V
Assign to a cortex
What is the allocortex?
= Paleocortex, Archicortex
= old cortex or evolutionary cortex
e.g. reptiles
3 layers of neurons!
What types of neurons are distiguished?
excitatory neurons
Glutamate
inhibitory neurons
GABA
What are the Brodmann areas? How many do we have?
= map of cortex based on cytoarchitecture in Nissl staining
52, only 43 in humans
BA? Cortex?
Special feature?
motor areas
BA 4 = primary motor cortex = precentral gyrus
BA 6 = supplementary and premotor areas
What are the special features in BA 4?
motor humunculus
+giant pyramidal cells in layer V of BA 4!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
blau = BA 1-3 = primary somatosensory cortex
grün = BA 5 = somatosensory association cortex
1, 3b = cutaneous senses
2, 3a = proprioception
What are the special features in BA 1-3?
= sematosensory humunculus
BA 17 = primary visual cortex
BA 18 = secondary visual cortex
BA 19 = visual association cortex
What are the special features in BA 17?
= Calcarine sulcus, big layer 4
many inputs!!!
pink = primary motor cortex
red = Arcuate fasciculus
green = integration of visual information
blau = Wernicke´s area = BA 22
über blau = primary auditory cortex = BA 41/42
lila = Broca´s area = BA 44/45
What is the function of the Arcuate fasciculus?
language processing
What is the function of the prefrontal cortex (PFC)?
= higher cognition
emotional and impulse control
organization
….
On which patient can we think about when remembering the functions of the prefrontal cortex?
—> think on Phineas Gage, accident during railroad work
What are the functions of the limbic system?
social behaviors
learning and memory
What do we see here?
= limbic system
In which part of the brain do we find the Hippocampus? What are functions and specialties in this structure?
= Telencephalon, limbic system
episodic and semantic memory
affective and social behaviors
—> Seahorse structure, only 3 layers (Allocortex)
On which patient can we think about when remembering the functions of the Hippocampus?
In which part of the brain do we find the Amygala? What are functions and specialties in this structure?
negative emotions (anxiety)
positive emotions (reward processing = Belohnungsverarbeitung)
specialty: multiple nuclei (cortical/subcortical origin)
Which structure do we see?
= Amygdala
What are basal ganglia?
= core areas of gray matter located deep in the cerebrum
= “learning instruments”
procedural learning
regulation of voluntary movements
reward-related behaviors
Which basal ganglia do we have?
Striatum
Caudate nucleus
Putamen
Globus pallidus
(Substantia Nigra)
(Subthalamic Nucleus (STN))
(Ventral Striatum/Pallidum)
1 = Caudate nucleus
2 = Putamen
3 = Globus pallidus
Which structures do we find in Diencephalon?
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Subthalamus
Epithalamus
orange = Thalamus
blau = lateral ventricle
grün = Epithalamus
pink = Hypothalamus u..
darunter = Hypophyse (pituitary gland)
grün = lateral ventricle
blau = 3rd ventricle
rot = Subthalamus
pink = Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus and pituitary gland
What are the functions of the thalamus?
sensory and motor functions
emotional and cognitive functions (higher cognition, limbic system)
ARAS = ascending reticular activating system (Schlaf-Wach-Rhythmus, …
Which pathways go through the thalamus?
All sensory information must pass through the thalamus, except for the olfactory pathway!
What are specialties of the thalamus?
lots of nuclei
What are the main functions of Hypothalamus and pituitary gland?
= control of autonomic and hormonal functions
homeostasis (thermoregulation, emotional regulation, sexual functions…)
autonomic nervous system
How is the Hypothalamus structured?
3 nuclei groups
grün = anterior group (supraoptic)
blau = middle group (tuberal)
rot = posterior group (mammillary)
How do the structures of Hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together?
nuclei of the hypothalamus regulate the pituitary gland!
anterior group (supraoptic)
posterior pituitary gland
Oxytocin
Vasopressin
middle group (tuberal)
anterior pituitary gland
TSH
stress hormones
sexual hormones
growth hormones
How are the anterior and posterior pituitary gland called and what is the difference between the tissue?
anterior pituitary gland = Adenohypophyse = glandular tissue
anterior pitutiary gland
posterior pitutiary gland
Adenohypophyse
Neurohypophyse
glandular tissue
nerve tissue
hormone production
NO hormone production
—> stores and dispenses Vasopressine and Oxytocine
Brain stem = Truncus encephali
What are functions of the brainstem?
conduction of information
functional control centers (cardiovascular and respiratory control, …)
cranial nerve nuclei (III-XII target neck and head)
Which type of cranial nerve nuclei do we distinguish?
cranial nerve efferent nuclei
motor neurons
parasympathic neurons
cranial nerve afferent nuclei
general sensation
special sensation
Which nuclei of the extrapyramidal system are crucial and why?
red nucleus (Nucleus ruber)
regulates posture and muscle tone
substantia nigra
initiation and regulation of movements
What is the reticular formation and which neurotransmitters play a role?
Diffuse network of small nuclei that regulate a wide variety of functions (e.g. breathing, swallowing, pain control …)
Serotonine
Norepinephrine
Adrenaline
In which direction lead these different pathways that go through the brainstem?
motor pathway
sensory pathway
Which third pathway can we find in the brainstem?
Which 2 structures are connected functionally by the Pons?
cerebrum to the cerebellum
What are the 6 functions of the cerebellum?
fine locomotor control —> important motor integration organ
motor learning
muscle tone and posture
balance, vestibular reflexes
eye movement
cognition?
Where can we find the cerebellum and how is it structured anatomatically?
behind Pons and Medulla oblongata
2 hemispheres + Vermis cerebelli
3 lobes
anterior lobe
posterior lobe
flocculonodular lobe
Which structure in the Cerebellum is connected to Pons?
Cerebellar peduncles
Which structures build the grey matter of the Cerebellum?
cerebellar cortex
deep cerebellar nuclei
Dentate
Emboliform
Globose
Fastigial
How is the information flow through the Cerebellum organized?
—> Through white matte
afferent projections through cerebellar peduncles
efferent projections through peduncles
Which functional structures can we distinguish in the Cerebellum and what is their main function? How are they connected and which structures can we find here?
Vestibulocerebellum
balance
cerebral cortex
lateral hemispheres
dentate nucleus
Spinocerebellum
posture, muscle tone
spinal cord
medial hemispheres
vermis, emboliform, globose, fastigial nuclei
Pontocerebellum
fine motor control, cognition
vestibular and visual system
flocculonodular lobus
no deep nuclei
Which layers can we find in the cerebellar cortex?
stellate/basket cells
purkinje cell layer
Purkinje cells
granular layer
granule cells
Which fibers can we find here? In which part of the Cerebellum do we find them?
=> Cerebellar cortex
green = mossy fibers (afferent)
orange = climbing fibers (afferent)
pink = purkinje cell projections (efferent)
How are the fibers connected?
mossy fibers (afferent)
—> parallel fibers
climbing fibers (afferent)
—> (no connection)
purkinje cell projections (efferent)
—> deep cerebellar nuclei
How is the arterial blood supply in the CNS organized?
Patient 1: stroke
Hemianopia (halbseitiger Gesichtsausfall: li oder re Seite des Sehens)
Hemisensory loss without paresis
Which artery is closed?
= posterior cerebral artery (PCA)
Patient 2: stroke
Hemiparesis, hemisensory loss (predominantly brachiofacial)
Dysathria (Ausführung von Sprechbewegungen) or aphasia (Wortfindungsstörungen)
Middle cerebral artery (MCA)
Patient 3: stroke
Hemiparesis, hemisensory loss (predominantly lower limb)
urinary incontinence
anterior cerebral functions (ACA)
How can we conclude the main functions of the 3 big arteries?
ACA
motor functions, sensory functions, urinary continence
predominantly lower limb
MCA
mortor funtions, sensory functions, speech
predominantly brachiofacial
PCA
sensory functions, visual system
No paresis
What is the venous drainage of the brain?
superficial and deep cerebral veins —> dural venous sinuses —> jugular vein —> heart
What exactly are the dural venous sinuses?
collect blood and CSF and transport it into jugluar vein
NO vessels
duplication of the meningis (Dura mater)
What are the meningeal membranes of the brain?
Dura mater
mechanical protection
Arachnoid mater
diffusion barrier, contains CSF —> cushions the brain
Pia mater
diffusion barrier, attached to brain surface
What is the ventricular system in the brain and how many ventricles do we have?
= production of CSF in choroid plexus
lateral ventricles (1st and 2nd) in cerebral hemispheres
2rd ventricle inbetween the thalamus
4th ventricle under cerebellum, over Medulla oblongata
What is the Aqueduct?
connection between 3rd and 4th ventricel allowing CSF to flow through
How is CSF composed?
similar to interstitial fluid (99% water, nearly protein free and distinct from blood)
BUT: distinct ion concentrations (potassium and calcium)
How much CSF is circulating?
150 ml total in adults
What are the main functions of the CSF?
homeoestatic regulation
waste clearance
Where does the CSF flow through?
inner circulation
ventricular system
central canal of the spinal cord
How can CSF go to the outer circulation?
—> opening in the 3rd ventricle (lateral and median aperture)
—> subarachnoid space
—> superior saggital sinus
—> blood circulation (venous system)
What are the 2 main function of the spinal cord?
conduit information between brain and body
information processes (spinal reflexes)
How many segments do we have in the spinal cord?
8 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 saccral
1 coccygeal
What are the differences between the dorsal and the ventral root?
dorsal root
ventral root
nerve fibers
afferent sensory info
efferent motor info
cell bodies
sensory neurons in dorsal root ganglia
motor neurons in ventral/lateral horn
axons
pseudounipolar axons
axon to effector muscle
How can we distinguish the segments?
Decreasing white matter because of the axon summation in direction to the brain
large amount of grey matter = parts responsible for the movement of arms and legs
Which laminae contain sensory and which contain motor laminae?
How are the alpha-motor neurons regulated in the spinal cord?
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