Etiology

• Long-standing alcohol use disorder (one of the two most common causes of chronic liver disease in the US)

• Medications (e.g., acetaminophen, amiodarone, chemotherapy drugs such as methotrexate)

• Ingestion of aflatoxin (produced by Aspergillus) [3]

• Industrial chemicals such as tetrachloromethane and various pesticides

• Chronic viral hepatitis: hepatitis B, hepatitis D, and hepatitis C (most common cause of cirrhosis in the United States)

• Primary biliary cholangitis

• Primary sclerosing cholangitis

• Autoimmune hepatitis

• Parasitic infections (e.g., schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis, malaria)

• IgG4 cholangiopathy

• Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)

• Hemochromatosis

• Wilson disease

• α1-antitrypsin deficiency

• Porphyrias

• Glycogen storage disease

• Cystic fibrosis

• Hereditary fructose intolerance

• Budd-Chiari syndrome

• Cardiac cirrhosis (congestive hepatopathy)

• Osler-Weber-Rendu syndrome

cirrhosis of uncertain etiology despite adequate diagnostical efforts