AK intro

a. Accumulation of lactate and octopine + heart beat increase

Accumulation of lactate and octopine is not wrong (teleost fish + cephalopods and bivalves, but heart

beat increase is a trap! That’s definitely wrong)

b. Accumulation of succinate, propionate and acetate + lowers metabolism

This is true for facultative hypoxia tolerant animals → less ATP demand and as well ATP production

due to downregulation of 1. Decrease of protein synthesis 2. Reduction of ion channels 3. Lethal:

dump of membrane potential

- Availability of light

o It is attenuated with depth and reflected at the surface → limits primary production

- Viscosity

o Adapted feeding mechanisms

o R>1 dominance of inertia – turbulent flow for nektonic animals → need for streamline

bodytype

o R<1 dominance of viscosity – laminar flow and diffusion for planktonic animals →

development of nutrient concentration gradients

- Density

o Ability to stay suspended as the density of organisms is close to the density of water

- High thermal conductivity

o poikilothermic organisms dominate

- Lambert-Beer-Law: I(z) = I(0)*e^(-k*z)

o Whereas: I(z)/I(0): irradiance at depth z or surface, z: water depth, k: attenuation

coefficient

- Light limitation is strongly determined by the attenuation coefficient k

o k is a factor of the water itself, the abundance of suspended or colloidal particles, the

abundance and community of phytoplankton absorbing light and the abundance of

chromophoric active DOM (humic acids, Gelbstoffe)

o but: being limited by light is strongly dependent on the species light compensation

point (different adaption mechanisms possible)

• calcification

the river discharge of Ca2+ and HCO3- into the ocean is much higher, than that of

Na+/Mg+/Cl-/SO42- but Ca2+ and HCO3- do not behave conservative, as they are bio-active

elements. Calcium and Bicarbonate are taken up during calcification in organisms. This

results in a lower residence time for these ions in the ocean. Tau = mean oceanic

concentration * (ocean volume / mean river discharge flux). The residence time for Na+ and

Cl- are waaay higher, making the ocean salty

- Conservative elements (e.g. Na) rather show no decline or increase of concentration with

depth. The concentrations are set largely due to the amount of river discharge into the

respective oceanic basin. Thus, generally speaking, concentrations of conservative elements

are generally slightly higher in the Atlantic, then in the pacific. This is because of the smaller

ocean volume, but higher overall river discharge

- Bio-active or limiting elements (e.g. NO3) typically show low concentrations in the mixed

surface layer or rather say euphotic layer. They are taken up during primary production. They

might be totally depleted in the mixed surface layer due to strong strong stratification

processes and no resupply from the deep. With increasing depth, they reach a maximum

concentration due to remineralization processes. Concentrations of bio-active elements are

usually higher in the pacific. During the journey of the thermohaline circulation, they have

received more OM input, which has been remineralized. Further, they are much older, and

there has been more time for even recalcitrant OM to remineralize.

- Particle reactive elements show different profiles. In general, areas of high productivity show

lower concentrations of particle reactive elements, as the adsorb to POM. If this OM gets

remineralized, below the mixed layers, the concentration of particle reactive matter increases

again. This can be a very local phenomena and should not be ascribed generally to the

respective oceans.

- Formation of deep water occurs in the North Atlantic (NADW, and also Labrador Sea) and in

the Southern Ocean, close to antarctica (AAIW, AABW)

- The main reasons for the horizontal connectivity of the oceans are wind generated friction

forces, which create currents. The winds are mainly driven by Hadley cells, which are a result

of the differing global radiation budget. In combination with the Coriolis force, due to earths

rotation, the currents are laterally deflected, resulting in an Ekman transport of water

masses.

- Further: the thermohaline circulation, also driven by the differing global radiation budget,

plays a major role. Besides being responsible for major vertical mixing it also provokes

horizontal currents. The main aspect in the THC is the density differences of different water

masses.

A keystone species is a species which has a disproportionately large effect on its natural environment relative to its abundance

- The euphotic zone is until the depth, where sufficient light for net primary production is

available. (roughly 100m depth, very variable in different regions)

- depth, at which gross primary production equals respiration in primary production

processes

- Rule of thumb: Depth at which 1% of light penetrates

- PAR = photosynthetic active radiation

- The quality of light changes in depth due to different attenuation processes

- Light of 500nm wavelength reaches the deepest

o Blue, blue violet, blue green

- This might be highly variable in different regions

- Different chlorophyll types: between 420 + 480nm and again at +- 650nm7

- Carotenoids harvest light at +- 500nm

- Phycobillins harvest light at 550 and or 620 nm

- H1: Redfield ratio is the optimal balance of nutrient acquisition and utilisation

o Phytoplankton at balanced growth show C:N:P ratio close to the Redfield ratio

- H2: Redfield ratio is a time and space average of cells with different strategies

o At a certain time and space cell deviate from Redfield. Cells have different strategies

to cope with non-balanced growth (survivalist: high N:P due to resource acquisition

machinery; bloomer: low N:P due to high amount of growth machinery)

- Both arguments are valid

- Different carbon allocations inside a cell;

- F: structures, always stays the same

- P: photosynthesis apparatus, allocation decreases with increasing light intensity

- S: storage increases with light intensity until a certain threshold

- B: biosynthesis components (mitochondria) increases at high light intensities

- CHONSP

- The Southern Ocean is a typical high nutrient low chlorophyll area. This generally occurs,

when macronutrients are present (not limiting), but cannot be taken up due to a lack of

cofactors. The micronutrient iron is only present in very low concentrations in the Southern

Ocean. This is in line with Liebig’s law of the minimum.

- They can change the composition of light harvesting molecules to a small extent

- They have cellular differentiation: lots of chloroplasts in the epidermis, less in the inner lying

cells

- Some have carbonate-concentration mechanisms (Ulva spp)

- Some are able to move chloroplasts, to adapt to varying light intensities

- Some are able to reduce the size of light harvesting complexes to avoid light inhibition

- Some can increase the concentration of rubisco for high productivity at high irradiance

- Differences are in the carbon and energy source

- Heterotrophs: organic carbon is used as an energy and carbon source

- Autotrophs: derive energy (lithospheric or light) and carbon (CO2) from inorganic sources

- divided into chemolithotrophs and chemoorganotrophs

- typical reaction for organolithotrophs would be the reduction of sulphate to sulphide

compounds while oxidizing methane to carbonates

- Calvin Bensson Bassham cycle

- Reductive tricarbocylic acid cycle (rTCA)

- Reductive acetyl CoA pathway

o Depends on environmental conditions, which pathway is present

- consume OM previously bound in primary production as an energy and carbon source.

- consume OM previously bound in primary production as a carbon source

- either direct “predation” on phytoplankton or feeding on POM (marine snow)

- DOC is returned to higher trophic levels due to the incorporation in bacterial biomass. This

returns the carbon to the food chain (via zooplankton and nekton). Most organisms are not

able to directly use this DOC as it is high molecular weight.

- Rosebacter and Flaviobacter largely control phytoplankton blooms.

- During transport into the mitochondria, decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA

- within the citric acid cycle

- oxygen is hydrated to water within the oxidative phosphorylation

- Normoxia: seawater fully saturated with oxygen

- Hypoxia: seawater not fully saturated with oxygen

- Anoxia: no or only traces of dissolved oxygen

- they combine photosynthetic and heterotrophic nutrition traits

- Constitutive: photosynthetic protists that possess a stable inherited plastid → phytoplankton

that also eat

- Non-const.: heterotrophic protists that acquire autotrophy through chloroplast retention

(kleptoplasty) or maintenance of algal endosymbionts

- Mixotrophic protists are going to be more successful in a warming climate and future ocean

conditions due to their nutritional flexibility. They will outcompete non mixotrophic organisms

due to their adaption to conditions where greater respiration rates are needed and a lower

nutrient availability will be there due to stratification

Protists are eukaryotes that are not fungi, animals or plants. They are mostly unicellular

Prokaryotes: no nucleus, circular DNA, no cell organelles, always unicellular

- Eukaryotes: nucleus, linear DNA inside nucleus, cell organelles, also multicellular

- describes the observation, that microscopic cell counts are significantly higher, than the

corresponding counts of colony forming units on agar plates

- 99 percent of all known microorganisms cannot be cultivated in the laboratory

- Pelagibacter ubique is the most abundant bacteria in the ocean from the SAR11 clade, it is

culturable

- Term that stands for bacterial species that are uncultivated and only known from

metagenomics

- usually defined as candidate phyla if there is less than 75 percent similarity in the sequence of

the 16S rRNA gene, compared to the nearest phylum representative

- organism that swims against currents

- minimal size is required to overcome the ocean currents

- Bones are a “recent” evolutionary trait of fish

- Are higher density, than surrounding water – additional energy expenditure for

staying buoyant: need for continuous swimming or swim-bladder

- “fishes” are a paraphyletic group, they are a mix of monophyletic groups with

different ancestor

- Recent adaptive radiations

- Many unknown tropical species

- Heavily under sampled deep sea/ polar seas

- Adaptions to different lifestyles, pelagic, benthic, ambush predator, long migrations…

- different if it is a predatory fish (grouper, flat, large area fin) or a continual fast

pelagic swimmer (tuna, “splitted” fin, with small area)

1. drift

2. chainformation to increase drag

3. sense: echolocation

4. hide

5. colouration

foundation species are species that have a strong role in structuring a community

• temp, salinity and thus density

1. marine nitrogen cycle:

2. nitrogen fixation, assimilation, nitrification, anammox and denitrification

• light exposure

• air exposure

not shure

• wind driven frictional layer where coriolis plays an important role (rotation)

• net transport leads to curculation to right of the wind (NH)

• important for biogeochemical properties (bc it induces upwelling and downwelling)

s you rise from low light intensity to higher light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis will increase because there is more light available to drive the reactions of photosynthesis.

• reaching light saturation point, photoinhibition starts

16S because is konservative RNA gene in mitochondria

16SrRNA

• large database available

• present in all living organisms

• high kopy number in metabolic active cells

• conserved and variable regions

  
  

The citric acid cycle provides the electrons that fuel the process of oxidative phosphorylation--our major source of ATP and energy

Holozooplankton: planktic their whole lifecycle: krill, copepod, diatoms

Merozooplankton: not only planktic in lifecycle: corals, fish

1. light

2. wave exposure

3. wet/dryness

4. salinity

• earth/moon system rotation: monthly

• 
  

• bc older: long term stability and more time to adapt bzw. longer apart from other waters

• located in photic zone, 30-50m

• characterized by light dependent communities

• large primary producers

• food webs with view main participants

1. westcoast southamerica

2. westcoast northamerica

3. westcoast northafrica

bc of winds/turbulences (ekman transport)

• easterliers am äquator

The timing and methods strongly determine the results.

1. net sampling: able to catch large amounts and do quantitative studies. Able to recover

organisms and fix them, do taxonomy or if living even physiological studies (Copepods,

Amphipods, Chaetognaths, Annelids)

2. in situ camera observations: keeps gelatinous animals intact (Rhizaria, Cnidaria,

Ctenophores), see animal behavior, know exact position of animal and associated

environmental factors

1. Decrease: N-loss processes, mainly due to hypoxia: if c(O2) < 20 μmol/L → NO3

- becomes

oxidant → Denitrification: NO3

2- → NO2 → (N2O) → N2 or Anammox: NH4

+ + NO2

- → N2 + H2O

in both cases: N2 not bioavailable anymore

1. Increase: N2 fixation via diazotrophic cyanobacteria (e.g.: Trichodesmium), but the enzyme

nitrogenase needs a lot of energy and iron

The reynold number indicates if the water around an object is flowing turbulent or laminar. This is

mostly determined by the size/length of the object and the relative velocity of water compared to the

object. In plankton the relative velocity of water to the object is close to zero, because it flows with

the water. Thus, for plankton, R < 1 and the viscose forces of water dominate (concentration

gradients develop). For nektonic, or large sessile animals, besides being larger, the relative velocity of

their bodies to the water is high(er). Thus, for nekton, R > 1 and inertia is dominating, causing a

turbulent flow.

R = (L*U*ρ)/μ

whereas: L = length of object, U = relative velocity, ρ = density of fluid, μ = fluid dynamic viscosity

• laminar flow

• diffusive boiundary layer

• water sticks to cell

• viscouse forces dominate

• sinkin follows stokes law (<1)

Lamber-Beer-Law: I(z) = I(0) * e-k*z

whereas I(z/0) = irradiance at depth z or surface, k = attenuation coefficient, z = water depth

• attenuation dependend on:

  • phytopl density und community

  • abundance of particle

  • abundance of DOM of which parts can be chromophobic active

Net primary production is the total amount of gross primary production within an algal cell subtracted by all its respiration processes.

• light exclusion measurement

• O2 measurement (14/13C: no clear seperation between net and gross)

In general: heterotroph protists = single celled eukaryotic bacteria → able to feed on phototrophic or

chemoautotrophic (in the deep) producers (feed on autotrophs); but: heterotroph protist are

mediating the “microbial loop” so they feed on POM and DOM (leaching phytoplankton, dying cells,

feces, sloppy eating). First of all, the amount of feeding is hard to quantify and secondly, they are

prone to lysing via viruses. This results in a shunt for DOM/POM and subsequently altered export of

previously bound OM due to primary production.

Bioluminescense

General: Luciferase is catalyzing the oxidation of luciferin → light + inactive ‘oxyluciferin’; get new

luciferin via diet or internal synthesis

Functions:

• counter illumination - disguise shadow, less visibility frim below

  • crustaceans, squid, fish

• mate attraction, recognition

• distractive body parts

  • squid

• startle the predator (confusing flashlight)

  • squid

Symbiosis (sensu deBary): close association of organisms of different species, regardless the benefits

or cost for each partner

Mutualism: both interacting organisms are experiencing a mutual benefit from the association to

each other – e.g. dinoflagellates synthesize carbon and transfer it to corals; Hawaiian bobtail squid

lives in association with bioluminescent Virbrio fisheri for counter illumination

Commensalism: only one of the organisms in close association is benefiting, whereas the other one is

neither harmed, nor profiting – e.g. some gut-microbiota

Parasitism: clearly, one organism of the association is benefiting, whereas the other organism

experiences a negative outcome

1. From the environment to the host – horizontal transmission (e.g.: bobtail squid and Vibrio

fisherii)

2. From parents to progeny – vertical transmission (e.g.: insects)

3. Leaky vertical transmission – a mix of vertical + horizontal (transmission by parents and some

via environment – most common transmission type)

• habitat, mediating community to certain extend (discriminates certain microbes)

• controls, maintain and reestablish homeostasis upon stress, injury and pathogens

• feeding rates

source:

1. river discharge

2. atm deposition (dust)

3. hydrothermal vents

sink:

1. sedimentation

2. outgasing

3. hydrothermal vents

= pressure gradient force: deltap = gh x deltakomisches p

• wind: ekman transport

• solar: thermohaline driven circulation

1. seasonal light and production regime -> pp driven by seasons

2. three marine habitats: sympagic, pelagic, benthic

   1. cryo-pelagic-benthic coupling

3. temp permanently low -> low solar irradiance

abyssal plain

-> rely on organic matter sinking down (marine snow, whale falls etc.)

1. H2 oxidation H2 + S -> H2S

2. sulfur cycling

3. methane oxidation

4. microbial fe(II) oxidation Fe2+ -> Fe3+

A carboxylating enzyme links either CO 2 or HCO 3 with an organic acceptor molecule, which must be regenerated in the following steps of the pathway

• always ATP needed

• calvin-benson-bassham cycle

• reverse krebs cycle

• autotrophy: org compounds synthesized using c from co2

• heterotrophy: c compounds as electron sources

1. massive glycogen reserves

2. alternative anaerobic endproducts

3. massive metabolic reductions >99 %

Cyanobacteria

1. chloroplast movement

2. thick epidermal cells

3. high pigmentations

4. (shut down photorespiration)

1. light limitations

2. air exposure

1. competition

2. predation

ds DNA

archaeal

• size

• density

• form (shape)

1. color of light

2. intensity

1. test hypotheses, concept, ideas

2. put isolated observations into coherent context

3. provide scenario simulations (predictions)

1. sex reproduction with internal fertilization (shark)

   1. mostly external fertilization

2. oviparous, ovoviviparous, viviparous

   1. mostly oviparous

3. modified pelvic fin for reproduction (male modified to claspers)

   1. not modified

• past: eating turtles

• now: bycatch and ingesting plastic

1. bodyformed streamline

2. gills

Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods or epochs in time (species with no relation).

= mesophotic populations can provide viable reproduction material for shallow reef areas following disturbances

but! there are limitations:

• tested on a limited taxonomic, geographic, bathymetric and climatic bases

1. salt sediments

   1. salt tolerance through

      1. salt excretion through special glands

      2. salt is delt with after entering the plant

   2. salt exclusion

2. anoxic sediments

   1. unique structures:

      1. pneumatophores

      2. prop roots

      3. need roots

      4. plank roots

   2. alternative access to air

a- RIGHT Autotrophs are also called primary producers

b-FALSE Autotrophs and heterotrophs are two sides of the same coin

c-RIGHT A heterotroph is an organism that consumes other organisms as food

d-RIGHT An autotroph is able to synthesize its own food from raw materials and energy

1. extracellular release of OM

lower carbon content will lead to:

1. lower exudation (ausschwitzen)

2. aggregation

3. sinking

• small carbon oxidising bacteria

• aerobic free living chemoheterotroph

• small genome

A: light limited

B: light saturation

C: Photoinhibition

D: Light compensation point

E: light saturation point

• bc of calcification (CaCO3) leading to dissapearance of Ca2+ and HCO3-

new: NO3-

regenerated: NH4+

a: nitrification

b: denitrification, annammox