Psychology

actual, imagined or implied presence of others

—> affect our thoughts,feelings and behaviour

snap=immediate

fundamental attribution error —> giving situational influnces less value

Actor= own perspective —> personal situational experiences

observer= indirect perspective through others

—> misconception that only internal factors are at fault and situational factors are neglected or are counted as personality traits.

Being late because you know you had bad traffic.

someone being late and you consider them not reliable.

self-serving bias: its because of you if you succeed and because of other circumstances if you fail

Hindsight bias is the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon. After the outcome of an event is known, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome.

1. Definition:

   • In-Group: Group where an individual feels belonging and identity.

   • Out-Group: Group to which an individual does not belong or identify.

2. Characteristics:

   • In-Group: Unity, similarity, loyalty.

   • Out-Group: Difference, separation, opposition.

3. Behavioral Effects:

   • In-Group: Favoritism, preferential treatment, solidarity.

   • Out-Group: Derogation, discrimination, hostility.

4. Social Dynamics:

   • In-Group: Enhances self-esteem, promotes group cohesion.

   • Out-Group: Potential for conflict, reinforces group boundaries.

5. Examples:

   • In-Group: Family, friends, co-workers, ethnic/national groups.

   • Out-Group: Competing sports teams, rival companies, different cultural groups.

The cocktail party effect refers to the ability to focus our attention on a particular person's voice amidst other voices and background noise.

Inattentional blindness is the inability to perceive an object or a person in our surroundings. A notable example is that half of the observers failed to notice a gorilla in a ball passing game.

Simple Attitudes: Single belief, clear, straightforward.

Complex Attitudes: Multiple beliefs, nuanced, conflicting components.

complex and simple attitudes describe the depth or intricacy of beliefs

Preference grows with familiarity.

Explicit Attitudes: Conscious, declared beliefs.

Implicit Attitudes: Unconscious, automatic reactions.

Explicit and implicit attitudes refer to conscious versus unconscious beliefs

Mental discomfort from conflicting beliefs, actions, or values.

Better on simple tasks, worse on complex, with observers.

Reduced effort in groups compared to individual work.

Loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in groups.

Groups often make riskier decisions than individuals; the presence of others can lead to increased boldness and minimized personal responsibility.

causes:

1. Conformity: Individuals may align their opinions and decisions with group norms to fit in, even if it contradicts their private beliefs.

2. Group Polarization: Group discussions can lead to more extreme positions, with individuals adopting stronger stances than they might individually.

3. Groupthink: In tight-knit groups, the desire for harmony and conformity can suppress dissent, reduce appraisal of alternatives, and lead to poor decision outcomes.

4. Social Facilitation: Presence of others can enhance performance on simple tasks but may impair it on complex tasks due to increased arousal.

5. Social Loafing: Individuals may exert less effort in a group setting than when working alone, relying on others to carry the load

Normative Influence: Conforming to gain acceptance or avoid social rejection.

Informational Influence: Conforming based on others' actions as information or guidance.

frustration—> aggression

more people—> less people take action in times of needs

less people —> more people take action in times of needs

Memory in the nervous system serves to store, retain, and recall information and past experiences, essential for learning, decision-making, and adaptive behaviors.

Encoding: Processing information into a memory format.

—>Storage: Retaining information over time.

—>Retrieval: Accessing and using stored information.

Selective Attention: Filters what information we encode into memory.

Change Blindness: Missing changes due to unattended details; affects memory accuracy.

—>selective attention and change blindness illustrate how memory is not a perfect recording of events but rather a selective and constructed representation influenced by what we pay attention to and what we overlook.

1. Sensory Memory: Brief retention of sensory information (milliseconds to seconds).

2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds information temporarily for processing (seconds to minutes); limited capacity.

3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Durable, potentially limitless storage of information; includes explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) memories.

Primacy Effect: Better recall of early list items.

Recency Effect: Better recall of later list items or what you read as last.

1. Explicit Memory (Declarative): Memories you can consciously recall, such as facts and events.

2. Implicit Memory (Non-declarative): Memories that are unconscious and expressed through performance, such as skills and tasks.

1. Hippocampus: Essential for forming new memories.

2. Amygdala: Involved in emotional memories.

3. Cerebral Cortex: Stores long-term memories.

4. Cerebellum: Important for procedural memory.

5. Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in retrieving memories and processing information.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a durable increase in synaptic strength following high-frequency stimulation of a synapse, crucial for learning and memory.

converting short-term memories into long-term storage

through triggers that give signals for recollection of information from the storage.

Remembering to do things in the future.

Recalling information inaccurately because of emotions(internal) and situational factors(external)

Neurotransmitters transmit signals between neurons, influencing mood, cognition, and behavior.

serotonin affect mood

dopamine influences motivation and reward

cortisol stress response

endorphins pain reduction and reward

cerebrum=forebrain

—>(associated with complex cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor functions)

cerebellum=hindbrain

—>(regulates autonomic functions, relaying information between the brain and the body, balance, and coordination)

brainstem=midbrain

—>(associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation)

Left: Language, logic.

Right: Creativity, visual-spatial.

Somatic: Voluntary control of skeletal muscles.

Autonomic: Involuntary control of smooth muscles, glands, and internal organs.

hormones affect behaviour

Working memory holds and manipulates information for cognitive tasks.

Prejudice is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual's membership of a social group. Discrimination is the behavior or actions, usually negative, towards an individual or group of people, especially on the basis of sex/race/social class, etc. For example, prejudice may involve harboring negative stereotypes about a racial group, while discrimination could manifest as denying employment based on race.

Explicit and implicit memory.

Information in long-term memory is organized by meaning, associations, and personal experiences.

Context: Recall in same place.

State: Recall in same mental state.

Calendars, reminders, alarms.

bias and reconstruction

Serotonin: Emotions, impulse.

Dopamine: Reward, motivation.

Endorphins: Pain, pleasure.

Forebrain (Cerebrum): Complex cognition, emotions.

Midbrain: Vision, hearing, arousal.

Brainstem: Autonomic functions, vital reflexes.(considered as part of the mainbrain)

Hindbrain (Cerebellum): Balance, coordination.

Explicit and implicit attitudes refer to conscious versus unconscious beliefs, while complex and simple attitudes describe the depth or intricacy of those beliefs