Kartenstapel

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Stellar Parallax -> Telescope -> Spectroscopy + Photography (natural limit due to atmosphere absorption) -> space-based Telesopes

• Big Bang

• Plank Time: everything was the same, only a fraction of a second after the big bang

• Nucleosynthesis: Temperature and density dropped -> first particles formed like protons and electrons

• Recombination: first aoms form He and H

• Photon Decoupling: (until here Dark ages = no photons escaped before)

• First Stars

• Today

Gravity causes mass to fall inwards while radiation pressure pushes mass out. If gravity wins -> collapse, if pressure wins -> oscillation due to increase of T -> pressure rises and so on.

Mass acceleartes to the center and heats up extremly. Due to the angular moment it shoots out along the angular momentum axis. The energy comes from the roation

Because mass is pulled inwards but does not meet perfectly at the center -> falls out after the CG and start turning -> rotation is started. thsi causes that the other mas is also pulled to the roation plane and a Protoplanetary Disk forms.

The closest distance a mass can be near another mass before disintegration. This depends on the density of both masses.

That wny rings form due to differetn s densities the have differetn disintegration radii

Initially clouds of cold gas mostly of hydrogen:

• Gravity pulls mass together

• Rotation sprads mass out

• Radiation Pressure pushes mass out

Nucelar fission starts if enough dense/hot

• Formation

• Protostar Phase

• Main Sequence Star

• Red Giant

• Helium Burning

• Planetary Nebula

• White Dwarf Phase

Brown dwarfs are failed stars. They never reach the critical mass to start fusion. But they are belived to be massive enough to fuse heavy hydrogen, deuterium.

• Solar seismology: oscillations on sun’s surface

• Radiometric dating of meteorites: measure isotropic ratios in meterites and comapre

• galactic evolution: studying the formation of suns in other systems and comnpare to sun to estiamate age.

from inner to outer:

• Core:

  • nucelar reaciotn of hydrogen to helium PP-chain

• Radiative Zone:

  • varies a lot in density from ~gold to less dense then water

  • Energy trasnfer from core to above

• Convection Zone

  • 2/3 of Sun’s volume

  • much less dense than radiation zone ~dense as air a 50 miles altitude

  • hot material rises and then sinks -> convection circles which are also vicible on the surface

• Photosphere

  • First layer of atmosphere

  • emits most of the sunlight

• Chromosphere

  • Origin of prominences

• Transition Zone

• Corona

  • composed of plasma

From neutron stars exploding

By the convective motion of plasma in its outer layers. Important for solar activity, space wheater and the suns impact on the earth.

concentarted magnetic fields

22 years long with after 11 years flip of magnetic field. Maunder minimum (almost no dark sports) was observed which is not understood.

charged particles primarily electrons and protons

a solar filament. Very dynamic but cool structure consitss of plasma held by magnetic forces.

Types:

• Quiescent Prominences

• Eruptive Prominences

Heliopause is the outer boundary of the heliosphere which is the suns influence in the interstellar room. Where the solar wind merges with the intertsellar medium is the termination shock

• how dies the sun generate the periodically reversing magnetic field

• What causes the maunder minimum and how does the cycle recover from such minimas

• why is the suns corona much hotter

• What is the interplay between the sun and the interstellar medium

Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Are composed primarily from silicate rocks or metals

• low mass

• small radii

• large densities

• rock forming elements and metals

• interior striongly differentiates and msotly composed by core mantle and crust

• least explored from inner planets

• high gravity pull from sun makes it difficult

• it is lokked in a 3/2 spin orbit resonace measn 3 times around own axis for every 2 orbits -> sun appears rising -> sinking then again rising. Due to eccentricity we have this 3/2 and not a calssical tidal locking like the moon.

• why is mercury’s normalised density higher then other terrestial planets

• is the core liwuid or solid

• is mercury geological active

• 92 bar surface pressure

• 460 °C surface Temperature

• may have had schdow liwuid watert oceans

• venus and earth started out similar

• Sun temp rose -> Oceans evaporated greenhouse effect casued thermal runaway

Due to suns gravity

• every life on venus

• how has the surface and interior evolved

Currently:

• detection of water in spils

• water frost on surface

• water-ice clouds

• water at poles

Ancient wet Mars:

• geomorphoogica features such as gullies rivers channels and streams

• geological features such as sedimentary rocks

• mineralogical features such as caly, sulfates..

The solar wind ripped of the atmosphere making it less dense so water evaporated and so on.

missing atmosphere -> missing insulation -> loss of water due to sublimation

Loss of magnetic field at some point. No dynamo on mars.

The dynamo shut down either due to too rapid cooling (less likely) ot due to not enough heat transfer to the outsde -> no convection

a celestial body that:

• orbits the sun

• has enough mass to assume a nearly round shape

• has not cleared the neighbourhood around it’s orbit

• is not a moon

Example: Ceres

Gravitational pertubations of Jupiter prevented it.

the Gas giants:

• Jupiter

• Saturn

Ice Giants:

• Uranus

• Neptune

• Mixture of freee protons and electrons instead of discrete H2 molecules

• Electrons can move freely -> metallic properties

• Happens around 400 GPa

• Most massive planet

• influences asteroid belt

• First planet

• took most of the mass left over frmom sun formation

• Formation followed two steps:

  • ice and rock planetesimal formed

  • wiht high enough gravity gases were pulles from protoplanetary disk

• Failed star

• Helium percipitates from solution with hydrogen and froms dense raiindrops

• When the drops fall through the metalic hydrogen, the drops converrt potential energy into kinetic energy which results into friction heat

• Made of mostly hydrogen and Helium

• Dense core at center made of FE and Ni surrounded by rocky material

• Core is eveloped from liquid metallic hydrogen inside a lyer of liquid hydrogen which is similar to jupiter but much smaller

• Lighting in the atmosphere converty methane gas into coke

• Pressure in saturn center is so high that even diamonds wouldnt survive

• Generation and maintaince of vortices

• Plasma transport mechanism and interaction with moons

• three distinct cloud layers

• Color of clouds comes from plumes of sulfur and phosphor contaiing gases rising from the warmer interior

• Largest and most powerful in solar system

• by volume largest continious structure

• Intenally driven

• shaped by Io’s plasma and it’s own rotation (earth is shaped by solar wind)

• Electromagnetic interaction with moons creates the ionized plasmas on the poles

Centruries old storm, 300km deep

Theory 1:

• A dense core of heavy elements like, rock and metal grew by collecting debris. Once big enough gases were accumulated and the Jupiter toady known was formed

  
  

Theory 2:

• Jupiter was formed from the large gas cloud that surrounded the sun. The gas cloud cooled and condensed forming instabilities. One of the more dense region pulled mor gas and collapsed to form Jupiter.

Theory 2 was ruled out when Juno measured a diluted core. A collision may have left Jupiter with the diluted core.

1. While Jupiter was movng closer to the sun , taking 99% of the left over mass, dor Ceres no mass was left so it became a dwarf planet.

2. Mars remained small becasue jupier cleared the mars region

3. Jupiter would have taken earth, mercury ans venus on the way towards the sun but due to the 2/3 resonance jupiter ans Saturn moved back out.

4. When Jupiter and Saturn moved back out thex kicked icy material from the asteroid belt inwards delivering water tzo the inner planets

5. Jupiter could have caused the extinction of dinosaurs whle kicking asteroids

6. Big object coming frm the interstellar room were captured by jupiters gravity and saving therfore the inner planets

7. Jupiters moon Io experiences tidal heating and thereby volcanism

Jupiter similar planets normally are closer to the sun and therfore also hotter. Such planaets have been observed in other stellar systems

1. Jupiter formed near the snow line of the early solar system around 3.5 AU

2. It then migrated inwards to 1.5 AU and got into a 2/3 resonance with Saturn

3. instabilities casued both planets to “tack” and move outwards

   
   

   
   

• Similar to Jupiters ut weaker

• energetic charged particles collide with netral atoms in titans upper atmosphere and energise them, causing it’s errosion.

seven main rings.

They are a collection of particles woth an avergae thickness of 10m with some vetical structures high up to 2.5 km

Moons plow thorugh the rings removing material and creating waves

Propeller like strucutres are created by the gravitational influence of moonlet

Probably ring material that is temporarily charged and levitatetes by intteraction between magnetic field and solar wind.

The appera around automnal or vernal equinox

A moon that was too close was pulled apart and the ring was closed in a few days

Formed probably closer to the sun and moved outwards

Mostly hydrogen and helium with a small amount of methane,water and ammonia. Methane clouds have strng absorption bands in the IR add red portion in the visible spectrum.

Consist mostly of bodies 20cm to 20m in diameter. They are confined by shepherding moons (interact gravitationaly to exchange angular momentum)

Multiple Impacts

A day 17h but a season 21 Years so a full orbit lasts 21*4 = 84 years. The storm a caused bacause the sun shined for a wuarte of a year on one pole so causing high thermal gradients.

By mathematical calculations

Enhanced Picture was used wihtout saying that it was color graded. Color is the same as Uranus.

In the outermost rings material clumps into three arcs.

• The are not alligned with the rotaional axis while others of Jupiter, Saturn and Earth are.

• They are not located at the center of the planet

Theory: superionic ammonia and ice, formed at very high pressures and temperatures. The fast spin rate produces weird looking magnetosphere

• Neptunes moon Triton makes up 99.5 % of all mass orbiting Neptune.

• Only large moon in pur solar system to orbit the opposite direction of it’s planets rotation.

• Might have been captured in the Kuiper Belt

A moon is a natural setellite that orbits a planet, dwarf planet or even an asteroid in pur solar system. Moons are typically smaller than the object they are orbiting and are held in place by the pull of their parent body.

Collison theory where a mars sized object collided with proto earth and ejected silicate material which formed the moon. The magnetic core stayed in the earth.

• Phobos

• Deimos

Hypithesis 1:

• Captured main-belt asteroid

  -> moons have much i common but the orbits are too circular

Hypothesis 2

• Mars collision wih planetesimal

  -> porosities are inconsistent with asteroidal origin and would explain better the orbital plane

• Io

• Europa

• Ganyemede

• Callisto

Io, Europa and Ganymede have a Fe-rich core. A mantle nad a crust.

Ganymede ans to see if potential to support life.

Due to tidal forces and elliptical orbits the three moons are in laplace resonanz

• Mimas

• Enceladus

• Tethys

• Dione

• Rhea

• Titan -> over 90% mass of orbiting Saturn

• Iapetus

• Miranda

• Ariel

• Unbriel

• Titania

• Oberon

• Triton

• Proteus

• Charon

All objects that are not a planet, dwarf planet or moon/satellites that orbit the sun, aer small solar system bodies.

Comets ave a tail due to outgasing. Asteroids not. Meteroids are all asteroids smaller than 1m in diameter

from ht einital solar system forming, from the planetesimals

In teh Kupier belt or Oort belt. An near the earthare also some

Due to the grand tack

Comets come from the Oort cloud to the inner solar system

• Due to collisions it gets smaller and smaller

• Thermal cracking when they get closer to the sun

Hayabusa mission returned samples from the asteroid ryugu. It formed due to impacts and it cotains water. Beacuse water is there it must have formed in the outer region

Comets are made from pristine material synthesized in the solat nebula or during the earlier stage of solar system formation.

Ammonium salts were found which is relevant for life

Double asteroid redirection test. A planetary defense test to shot a incoming asteroid awy or redirect it. How much mass s needed to deflect a asteroid..

Probably from asteroids because comets have deuterium which is heavy

• Attitude COntrol

• Propulsion

• Thermal Control

• Structure

• Telemetry and command

• Electric Power

• Feasibility

• Safety

• Reliability

• Low mass and volume

• Human factors

• Cost

• Compatibility of alls S/C elements

• Random vibrations

• High acceleratios

• Shocks

• Acoustic laods

-> High mechanical loads on all parts

-> Strong structures required

• Vacuum

  • no oxygen so life support needed

  • pressure suit needed

  • high thernal gradient due to no convection

  • material is outgasing so contamination

• Gravity

  • low gravity reduces the contact to ground so less traction

  • dust will not settle so fast which results in less vision

• Illumination

  • higly determines how much power can be generated with solar panels

  • extreme temperature gradients

  • psychological effects for astronauts

• Temperature

  • thermal stress

  • outgasing

  • increased power demand for heating/cooling

• Radiation

  • for humasn long term effects

  • computer errors

  • material degredation so properties can change

• Impacts

  • particle impacts will casue mechanical damage, rupture or electrical failure

  • not so fast ones will accumulate and form a dust layer

• Dust

  • for humans not good if inhaled, maybe toxic

  • Allergic response

  • Abrasion and wear increases

  • reduces signal strength, electrical power generation

  • cloggs moving parts

• Contamination

  • avoid it for humans but also avoid bringing stuff back to earth

  • new viruses or

• cold gas

• chemical

  • main propulsion, energy in chemical bonds

  • typical Isp 200 - 450 s

  • high mass flow and thrust

  • liquid

  • solid

• electric

  • high isp up to 3000 s

  • low mass flow and thrust

• Nuclear

• Mechanical

• must survie the launch

• should be as light as possibl

• should provde a stable focus for optical instruments under thermal expansion

• problems with frictions and environmental conditions

• often single point of failure

Attitude Determination and Control System

• Sensors/Antenna need to point in a a adirection

• No rotation is wanted

• Gravity Gradient

• Aerodynamic drag

• Magnetic Torques

• Solar Radiation

• Mass Expulsion

• Internal Changes

• Star Sensors (for long exposure)

• Sun sensors

• Earth sensors

• inertial measurement units

• magnetometer

• GPS

• Spin stabilization

• Magnetic alignment

• gravity gradient

• Thrusters

• Reaction wheels

• magentic torquers

• batteries

  • realtive low energy densitiy but good for storage

  • Lithium ion

  • thermal management is crucial

• RTG (radioisotope thermoelectric generators)

  • for mission far away from sun

  • low efficiencies

  • conversion from heat of nuclear decay into electric energy (seebeck effect)

  • reliable

  • long lifetime

  • decrease of power over time

  • political problems

• solar energy

  • dependetn on local illumination

  • degredation

• batteries

• fuel

• mechanisms

• sensors

• white/mirror for cooling

• black for heating

• electric resitors

• radioisotrpic heat from decay

• cryocooler

• Peltier elements

• radiators to radiate heat away

Manufacuring assembly integration and Test

Tests are:

• shakeer

• Tvac

• EMC

• Acoustic

• remote

• In situ

  to get to the objects

• “Every planet travels round the sun in an elliptical orbit, with the sun at one focus. The moon, in the same way, travels in an ellipse round the earth, though in this case he recognized that the ellipse was not perfect.”

• “The velocity of a planet varies with its distance from the sun in such a way that a line joining the planet with the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.”

• “The square of the time taken by any planet to make a complete orbit is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the sun.”

• Intercepting orbits

  • One-impuls maneuvres

• Non-intercepting transfers

  • Two impulse trandfer

  • Three imoulse transfers

  • Continuous thrust transfer orbit

to achieve a certain delta v, the necessary impulse scales monotonically witht the velocty, being minimal at the lowest orbital radius and highest orbit velocity

• Lambert transfer

  • general

• Hohmann transfer

  • lambert wiht the least effort

  • only working f coplanar, elliptical and same cental body

When we go to infinity, we basicly need to effort to cahnge orbit. We can ust his and go very far away to minimize the delta v needed. This is with a three impule transfer. We do one impule to “infinity” then do the orbit change and do the 3. And last impulse to stay in the end orbit.

we simplify the planets to two objects and there SOI to calcualte the transfer

With a fly by we can change the robit and thereofre gain delta v. from planetocentric view the velocity does not change but from heliocentric it does and can therefore have a substantial influence because the vector orientation changes.

• Size

• Mass

• Power

• Number of products (often n = 1)

• Quality assurance

• Qualification effort

• Redundancy, failure tolerance

• Operation and autonomy

• Performance (resolution, accuracy)

• Data handling (compression, telemetry)

GCMS -  gas chromatography with mass spectrography

XRF – x ray fluorence

CLUPI – close up imager (macro cam)

ProSEED - Drill

• Interiors

• Surfaces

• Atmosphere

Spectroscopy is when we look at it and observe how the matter interacts with electromagnetic radiation

Spectrometry is when we make sense out of the gathered data.

To measure the somposition of hte atmosphere. Charachterise the planetary material.

• Ionization source

• Mass analyzer

• Detector

• Sector Field (magnetic sector)

• Quadrupole

• Time-of-flight

• Ion trap

• centrifugal force vs Lorentz

• Ion sorce is kinetic energy

• lighter ions will be deflected more

• Keeping R and ionisation voltage const. -> specific Ions can be scanned

They use a combination of DC and radio frequency voltages to permit selected ions with a specific m/z ratio to pass through the rod assembly.

They use electric and magnetic fields to capture ions and selectively release them in a discontinous process.

Differetn configurations are possible:

• Penning trap

• Paul trap

• Orbitrap

Iosn pass a field-free drift zone where they are seperated by their mass beacuse lighter ions travel faster. Because all ions have the same charge state, only the mass determines the travel speed. All the ions are recorded by the detector which results in a high sensitivity. TOF collect an entire spectrum where others scan across a mass range.

If the sun shines through a gas, different molecules will absorb different frequencies. This means that by measuring the frequency band, we can detect absorption features or absorption bands. The following frequencies absorb:

• 0.4 to 2.5 μm: crystal field electronic transition absorptions (electronic transitions of electrons)

• >1.4 μm: molecular absorption bands (fundamental molecular vibrational and rotational modes)

• 5 to 50 μm : fundamental vibration frequencies (structural, chemical, and physical properties)

• 7 to 11 μm: “transparency features”, e.g. quartz and feldspar (largely dominated by surface scattering)

many of rockforming elements between 5-50 um

UV, VIS-NIR, Mid-IR

-          The Christiansen Feature (CF) occurs near the Christiansen frequency where the real refractive index of the material is approximately equal to the refractive index of the medium. It depends mainly on the SiO2 content, as its position is indicative of silica polymerization.

-          The Reststrahlen Band (RB) is caused by the stretching and bending of bonds between silicon, oxygen, and various cations and is therefore important in identifying feldspars, pyroxenes, and olivine.

-          Transparency Features (TF) are caused by volume scattering and become more pronounced as particle size decreases.

• temperature

• Grain size

• Surface roughness

• Directivity

• Soil maturity

Spectrometer:

• Reference Gas

• Complementary data, e.g. on solar wind direction

Camera:

• Colour targets

• electromagnetic interference and compatibility

• Vibration, Shock, Microvibraitons

• Acoustic

• Thermal Vacuum

1. Pre-Launch Phase (PLP)

2. Launch & Early Operation Phase (LEOP)

3. Transfer Phase (TP)

4. Commissioning Phase (CP)

- Performance Verification Phase (PVP)

- Science Demonstration Phase (SDP)

5. Nominal Operations Phase (NOP)

6. Extended Operations Phase (EOP)

7. Decommissioning Phase (DP)

8. Post-Operations Phase (POP)

9. Active-Archival Phase (AAP)

1. Launch & Early Operation Phase (LEOP)

2. Interplanetary Transfer Phase

3. Orbit Transfer Phase

4. De-Orbitation, Descent and Landing Phase

5. Science Surface Operations Phase

• The mission duratio is increased

• more capabilities due to improved communication, processing and instruments

• Commercialisation

• Reusability

intrestingly the risks are still a issue and have not been diminished

• Mechanical issues

  • JUICE RIME antenna sue to stuck pin

• Software glitches

  • Mars climate orbiter imperial units were used instead of metric (fail)

  • Deep Impact Spacecraft entered safe mode during eaerth flyby leading to temporary errors (recovered)

• User errors

  • Huygens Lander only transmitted 350 out of 700 images because command to transmit over two cahnnels was not sent. So it was transmitted redundantly over both channels.

• Environemt

Mars Entry, Descent and Landing.

We can use:

• Landers (small weight)

• Sky crane for large rovers in 1t region

• Ballons for small rovers in the 100kg range