Geoscience

In geoscience, ablation refers to the process of losing material from a glacier, ice sheet, or snowpack through melting, sublimation, or calving. It reduces the mass of the ice or snow, often affecting the overall size of glaciers and ice formations.

In geoscience, abrasion is the process of wearing down rocks and surfaces through friction, often caused by particles like sand, pebbles, or ice being carried by wind, water, or glaciers. This results in the smoothing and shaping of landforms over time.

In geoscience, absolute age refers to the exact age of a rock, fossil, or geological event, usually measured in years. It is determined through methods like radiometric dating, which uses the decay of radioactive isotopes to pinpoint a precise age.

An abyssal hill is a small, rounded elevation on the deep ocean floor, typically rising a few hundred meters above the surrounding abyssal plain. These features are among the most common landforms on Earth and are usually formed by volcanic activity or tectonic processes.

An abyssal plain is a vast, flat, and deep region of the ocean floor, typically found at depths of 3,000 to 6,000 meters. It is one of the flattest and smoothest surfaces on Earth, formed by the accumulation of fine sediments over time.

An accreted terrane is a fragment of crustal material, often an island arc or microcontinent, that has been tectonically attached to a larger continental plate. This process occurs through plate collisions, adding new landmass to the edge of continents.

Fracking, or hydraulic fracturing, is a process used to extract oil and natural gas from deep underground. It involves injecting a high-pressure mixture of water, sand, and chemicals into rock formations to create fractures, allowing the trapped hydrocarbons to flow out for collection.

In geoscience, accretion is the process by which material is gradually added to a landmass, such as when sediment accumulates along a coastline, or when tectonic plates collide, causing fragments of crust to attach to a continent.

In geoscience, accumulation refers to the process of gathering or depositing material, such as snow, ice, or sediment. In the context of glaciers, it specifically means the addition of snow and ice that increases the glacier’s mass.

An active margin is a coastal region where a continental plate meets an oceanic plate, often characterized by tectonic activity such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain building. These margins are typically marked by deep ocean trenches and rugged coastlines.

any of several lower-magnitude earthquakes that follow the main shock of a larger earthquake. An aftershock results from the sudden change in stress occurring within and between rocks and the previous release of stress brought on by the principal earthquake. Aftershocks occur in rocks located near the epicentre or along the fault that harboured the principal quake.

Albedo, [von lat. weiße Farbe], Maß für die von Oberflächen reflektierte Strahlung. In der Meteorologie das Verhältnis des von der Oberfläche in den Halbraum reflektierten Strahlungsflusses zu dem aus dem Halbraum auf die Oberfläche einfallenden Strahlungsfluß, ausgedrückt in Prozent. Die Albedo ist stark von den Eigenschaften der bestrahlten Fläche abhängig und für die verschiedenen Spektralbereiche unterschiedlich groß.

Alluvial fans are cone shaped accumulations of coarse sediment deposited at the transition from confined flow in a canyon to unconfined flow in a basin. This also corresponds to a break in slope. As the slope shallows and the flows spread out, the flows slow down and deposit much of the sediment that they were able to transport in the canyon.

Amphibolit ist definiert als Gestein, das durch die metamorphe Umwandlung von Basalt, dessen Tiefenäquivalent Gabbro oder anderen Meta-Basiten unter Druck- und Temperaturbedingungen der Amphibolit-Fazies entstanden ist (T ≈ 550–700 °C, P ≈ 200–1200 MPa).

Andesit ist ein vulkanisches Gestein („Ergussgestein“), das insbesondere in Subduktionszonen und in den vulkanischen Zonen der ozeanischen Rücken (beispielsweise auf Island) auftritt.

Lavas of andesitic or intermediate composition commonly form a somewhat different type of flow, known as a block lava flow. These resemble aa in having tops consisting largely of loose rubble, but the fragments are more regular in shape, most of them polygons with fairly smooth sides. Flows of more siliceous lava tend to be even more fragmental than block flows.

The angle of repose, or critical angle of repose, of a granular material is the steepest angle of descent or dip relative to the horizontal plane on which the material can be piled without slumping. At this angle, the material on the slope face is on the verge of sliding. The angle of repose can range from 0° to 90°.

negatively charged element

An antecedent stream is a stream that maintains its original course and pattern despite the changes in underlying rock topography. A stream with a dendritic drainage pattern, for example, can be subject to slow tectonic uplift. However, as the uplift occurs, the stream erodes through the rising ridge to form a steep-walled gorge. The stream thus keeps its dendritic pattern even though it flows over a landscape that will normally produce a trellis drainage pattern.

Anthropogenic geology (AG) is the study of geological materials and morphologies created, reshaped, or otherwise modified by humans and human activity.

In structural geology, an anticline is a type of fold that is an arch-like shape and has its oldest beds at its core, whereas a syncline is the inverse of an anticline. A typical anticline is convex up in which the hinge or crest is the location where the curvature is greatest, and the limbs are the sides of the fold that dip away from the hinge.

Aquiclude, Grundwassersperrer (veraltet), Gesteinskörper, der größere Wassermengen speichert, aber nicht durchläßt. Aquicluden sind praktisch undurchlässige Gesteine, die auch als Grundwassernichtleiter bezeichnet wurden.

An aquifer is a body of porous rock or sediment saturated with groundwater. Groundwater enters an aquifer as precipitation seeps through the soil. It can move through the aquifer and resurface through springs and wells.

Arkose, mehrdeutig in der Literatur verwendeter Begriff. Als Feldbezeichnung beschreibt Arkose einen meist hellgrauen bis rötlichen, schlecht sortierten Sandstein mit hohem Feldspatanteil und wechselndem Gehalt an Gesteinsfragmenten.

If water reaches the ground surface under the natural pressure of the aquifer, the well is termed a flowing artesian well. Fossil water aquifers can also be artesian if they are under sufficient pressure from the surrounding rocks, similar to how many newly tapped oil wells are pressurized.

Block-and-ash flows contain dense juvenile blocks and ash, and form from growing lava domes that explode, decrepitate, or collapse, generating hot rock avalanches that rapidly transform into block-and-ash flows.

Asteroiden, Planetoiden, planetenähnliche, rotierende Kleinkörper von meist unregelmäßiger Gestalt. Sie haben sich vermutlich in einer Frühphase der Entstehung unseres Sonnensystems gebildet und nehmen heute einen Asteroidengürtel zwischen den Umlaufbahnen von Mars und Jupiter ein, vielleicht einen zweiten jenseits des Jupiters.

Astrobiologie ist die Wissenschaft, die das Leben im Universum untersucht, einschließlich seiner Entstehung, Entwicklung und Verbreitung. Du wirst lernen, wie Wissenschaftler nach Spuren von Leben auf anderen Planeten und Monden suchen. Diese Disziplin kombiniert Erkenntnisse aus der Biologie, Chemie und Astronomie, um Antworten auf eine der größten Fragen der Menschheit zu finden.

Die Atommasse ist die Masse eines einzelnen Atoms. in der SI-Einheit Kilogramm (kg), in der atomaren Masseneinheit (u, früher auch amu).

The atomic number or nuclear charge number (symbol Z) of a chemical element is the charge number of an atomic nucleus. For ordinary nuclei composed of protons and neutrons, this is equal to the proton number (np) or the number of protons found in the nucleus of every atom of that element. The atomic number can be used to uniquely identify ordinary chemical elements. In an ordinary uncharged atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons.

An organism capable of producing its own food, usually through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.

A region with heavily eroded landforms, characterized by steep slopes and sparse vegetation.

Layered sedimentary rocks rich in iron, formed billions of years ago in oxygen-poor conditions.

A coastal landform composed of sand that forms parallel to the mainland, protecting it from storms and waves.

The movement of a glacier facilitated by the melting of ice at its base.

Basalt ist das vulkanische Äquivalent zum Gabbro (Plutonit), der zwar die gleiche chemische Zusammensetzung hat, aber tief in der Erdkruste aus einem Magma vergleichsweise langsam auskristallisierte und nicht nach Austritt an der Erdoberfläche relativ rasch zu Basalt erstarren konnte.

Basaltic lavas are emitted in effusive (Hawaiian style) eruptions where they either ooze out from vents or are ejected in lava fountains that may be propelled a hundred feet (30 m) or more into the air before landing and starting to flow as molten rock. Lavas that are discharged at high rates generally travel faster and further from their vent than ones that are erupted at lower rates. Topography, especially the steepness of slopes on which lavas flow, also greatly impact the speeds and distances that they can travel. Basaltic lava flows generally travel as either:

• broad sheets,

• in channels,

• or through lava tubes.

The lowest point to which a river can erode, often sea level.

A low area in the Earth's crust, often collecting sediments over time.

Ein durch Intrusion entstandener ausgedehnter Tiefengesteinskörper mit nach unten ausweichenden Flanken.

Batholith großer, meist diskordanter Pluton mit mehr als 100 km2Ausstrichbreite an der Erdoberfläche und unbekannter Basis.

A landform consisting of loose sand or gravel along the shoreline of a body of water.

Sediment transported by a stream that moves along the bottom of the channel.

In geology, a bed is a layer of sediment, sedimentary rock, or volcanic rock "bounded above and below by more or less well-defined bedding surfaces".[1] A bedding surface is three-dimensional surface, planar or curved, that visibly separates each successive bed (of the same or different lithology) from the preceding or following bed. Where bedding surfaces occur as cross-sections, e.g., in a 2-dimensional vertical cliff face of horizontal strata, are often referred to as bedding contacts. Within conformable successions, each bedding surface acted as the depositional surface for the accumulation of younger sediment.

A succession of sedimentary layers with distinct characteristics, indicating changes in depositional environment.

Sediment composed of fragments of biological origin, such as shells or coral debris.

Fuel derived from biological materials, such as plants or organic waste.

The natural cycling of elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus between living organisms and the environment.

Biologic sedimentary rocks form when living organisms die, pile up, and are then compressed and cemented together. Types of biologic sedimentary rock include coal (accumulated plant material that is carbon-rich), or limestone and coquina (rocks made of marine organisms).

The global ecosystem comprising all living organisms and their interactions with the environment.

The disturbance of sediment by living organisms, such as burrowing animals.

Blueschist, also called glaucophane schist, is a metavolcanic rock[1] that forms by the metamorphism of basalt and rocks with similar composition at high pressures and low temperatures (200–500 °C (392–932 °F)), approximately corresponding to a depth of 15–30 km (9.3–18.6 mi). The blue color of the rock comes from the presence of the predominant minerals glaucophane and lawsonite.

Blueschists are schists typically found within orogenic belts as terranes of lithology in faulted contact with greenschist or rarely eclogite facies rocks.

A volcanic bomb or lava bomb is a mass of partially molten rock (tephra) larger than 64 mm (2.5 inches) in diameter, formed when a volcano ejects viscous fragments of lava during an eruption. Because volcanic bombs cool after they leave the volcano, they are extrusive igneous rocks. Volcanic bombs can be thrown many kilometres from an erupting vent, and often acquire aerodynamic shapes during their flight. Bombs can be extremely large; the 1935 eruption of Mount Asama in Japan expelled bombs measuring 5–6 m (16-20 ft) in diameter up to 600 m (2,000 ft) from the vent. Volcanic bombs are a significant volcanic hazard, and can cause severe injuries and death to people in an eruption zone.

A sedimentary layer deposited at the base of a delta.

A river channel divided into multiple small, interwoven channels, often due to high sediment load.

A property of materials that break or fracture easily under stress, without significant deformation.

Regulations governing the design and construction of structures to ensure safety and sustainability.

Metamorphism caused by the weight of overlying sediments in deep burial environments.

A large, bowl-shaped volcanic depression formed by the collapse of a magma chamber after an eruption.

A period around 540 million years ago when a rapid diversification of life forms occurred.

The maximum sediment load that a river can transport.

The movement of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, living organisms, and Earth's crust.

A system that focuses on reducing carbon emissions and increasing sustainable energy sources.

The amount of carbon dioxide emitted per unit of energy or economic output.

The process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide to mitigate climate change.

A mineral group containing carbonate ions, common in sedimentary rocks like limestone.

The depth in the ocean at which carbonate minerals dissolve faster than they accumulate.

Sedimentary rocks, such as limestone, composed primarily of carbonate minerals.

Sediment formed from carbonate minerals, often derived from shells or coral.

A positively charged ion, crucial in mineral composition and chemical reactions in rocks.

Sediments formed from the precipitation of minerals from solution, such as evaporites.

Sediment that forms through chemical processes, such as the evaporation of seawater.

The resistance of a mineral or compound to chemical changes under certain conditions.

Molecular fossils that indicate the presence of ancient life, such as lipids or proteins.

A hard, fine-grained sedimentary rock made of silica.

Molecular fossils that indicate the presence of ancient life, such as lipids or proteins.

A hard, fine-grained sedimentary rock made of silica.

A bowl-shaped depression carved by a glacier, typically found in mountainous areas.

Fine-grained sedimentary particles smaller than 0.002 mm, often formed from weathered minerals.

A sedimentary rock composed primarily of compacted clay particles.

The tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weakness.

The tendency of a mineral to break along flat planes of weakness in its crystal structure.

A sedimentary rock composed primarily of carbon, formed from the remains of ancient vegetation.

The ability of a river to transport sediment of a particular size.

A seismic wave that compresses and expands material, also called a P-wave.

A force that pushes materials together, often causing deformation.

An igneous intrusion that follows the layering of the surrounding rock.

The transfer of heat through a material without movement of the material itself.

A sedimentary rock composed of rounded gravel-sized particles cemented together.

Sediments or rocks that have been compacted and lithified into a solid form.

Metamorphism caused by heat from nearby magma or lava, altering surrounding rocks.

The hypothesis that continents move across the Earth's surface over geological time.

A large ice sheet that covers significant portions of a continent.

The zone of transition between the continental crust and oceanic crust.

A gentle incline of accumulated sediments at the base of the continental slope.

The shallow, submerged edge of a continent, extending to the continental slope.

The steep slope between the continental shelf and the deep ocean floor.

Lines on a map that connect points of equal elevation, used to represent the shape and height of landforms.

The transfer of heat by the movement of fluids (liquids or gases), commonly occurring in the mantle and atmosphere.

A tectonic plate boundary where two plates move toward each other, often causing subduction or orogeny.

The boundary between Earth's metallic core and silicate mantle, located at about 2,900 kilometers depth.

The pre-existing rock into which magma intrudes.

A chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons, important in the structure of many minerals.

A bowl-shaped depression at the summit of a volcano or from meteorite impact.

A stable, ancient portion of the continental lithosphere that has survived tectonic activity.

A thick lithospheric root beneath a craton, extending deep into the mantle.

The slow, gradual downhill movement of soil or rock under gravity.

A deep crack in a glacier or ice sheet, often caused by movement over uneven terrain.

Sedimentary layers deposited at an angle to the main bedding plane, typically formed by wind or water currents.

Unrefined petroleum, a natural liquid mixture of hydrocarbons formed from organic material in sedimentary rocks.

The Earth's outermost solid layer, consisting of continental and oceanic types.

A solid with a regularly repeating atomic structure, forming the basis of minerals.

The characteristic shape of a mineral crystal.

The process by which minerals solidify from a melt, solution, or vapor.

Photosynthetic microorganisms that played a key role in producing Earth's oxygen-rich atmosphere.

A volcanic rock of intermediate to high silica content, often associated with explosive eruptions.

A mathematical equation describing the flow of fluids through porous media, commonly used in hydrogeology.

Melting caused by a reduction in pressure, common at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes.

The removal of loose particles by wind, leaving behind a surface of coarser material.

The bending, breaking, or flowing of rock due to stress.

A landform at the mouth of a river where sediment is deposited as the river flows into a standing body of water.

A tree-like drainage pattern formed by rivers and streams flowing across a uniform substrate.

A type of remnant magnetization acquired by sediments as they settle and align with Earth's magnetic field.

The vertical distance below a reference surface, such as sea level or ground level.

A surface covered with closely packed, interlocking rock fragments, typically found in arid regions.

A dark coating on rock surfaces in arid regions, formed by the accumulation of manganese and iron oxides.

The process by which fertile land becomes desert, often due to drought, deforestation, or poor land management.

The physical, chemical, and biological processes that convert sediments into sedimentary rock.

A volcanic pipe formed by a violent explosion of gas-rich magma.

The process by which Earth's layers formed as denser materials sank to the core and lighter materials rose to the crust.

A discordant igneous intrusion that cuts across rock layers.

A coarse-grained igneous rock of intermediate composition.

The angle at which a rock layer or fault surface inclines from the horizontal plane.

A magnetic or electric field with two opposite poles, often used to describe Earth's magnetic field.

A fault where movement is primarily vertical, along the dip of the fault plane.

The volume of water flowing through a river or stream per unit time.

An igneous intrusion that cuts across the layering of the surrounding rock.

A mineral deposit where valuable minerals are spread throughout the host rock.

A stream or channel that branches off from a main river and flows away, common in deltas.

A ridge or high ground separating one drainage basin from another.

A sedimentary rock composed mainly of the mineral dolomite, typically formed from limestone by chemical alteration.

A rounded or elliptical uplift of rock layers, often caused by magma or tectonic forces.

The area of land where all precipitation collects and drains into a common outlet, such as a river.

The interconnected system of streams and rivers within a drainage basin.

Unconsolidated glacial sediment deposited by melting ice or flowing meltwater.

An extended period of deficient rainfall, leading to water scarcity.

An elongated hill formed by glacial ice movement, with its long axis parallel to the direction of ice flow.

A streambed that remains dry except during periods of heavy rainfall.

The ability of rock or material to deform without breaking under stress.

A mound or ridge of sand formed by wind or water currents.

Fine, dry particles of soil, rock, or organic material suspended in the air.

A celestial body orbiting the Sun that is not massive enough to clear its orbit of debris, e.g., Pluto.

The interconnected components of Earth, including the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.

The shaking of the ground caused by the sudden release of energy along a fault or by volcanic activity.

A dense metamorphic rock formed under very high pressure, often from basalt in subduction zones.

A biological community and its physical environment, interacting as a system.

A climate phenomenon characterized by the warming of sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean.

The concept that earthquakes occur when accumulated strain is released as rocks snap back to their original shape.

The basis of covalent bonding, which forms many mineral structures./The basis of ionic bonding, common in the formation of minerals.

The height of a location above a reference point, usually sea level.

El Niño-Southern Oscillation, a climate pattern that includes El Niño, La Niña, and neutral phases affecting global weather.

Pertaining to processes or deposits caused by wind, such as dunes or loess.

The longest division of geological time, comprising several eras.

Large-scale, gradual vertical movements of Earth's crust, often forming plateaus or basins.

The point on Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake.

A subdivision of geological time within a period, often characterized by significant events or changes in Earth's history.

A major division of geological time, made up of multiple periods.

The process by which rock and soil are worn away by water, wind, or ice.

A long, winding ridge of sediment deposited by a meltwater stream beneath a glacier.

A sedimentary rock formed by the evaporation of water, leaving behind minerals such as halite or gypsum.

Sediments deposited as water evaporates, leaving behind dissolved minerals.

The process by which organisms change over time through genetic variation and natural selection.

The rapid diversification of organisms into new ecological niches, often following mass extinction events.

The peeling or flaking of rock layers due to pressure release or weathering.

The exposure of deeply buried rocks at the Earth's surface due to uplift and erosion.

A planet located outside of our solar system, orbiting a star.

An organism that thrives in extreme environmental conditions, such as high temperature, pressure, or acidity.

Rock formed from magma that cools and solidifies on the Earth's surface.

A fracture in Earth's crust along which movement has occurred.

The orientation and movement along a fault during an earthquake, described by focal mechanisms.

The displacement that occurs along a fault during an earthquake.

Igneous rock rich in silica and light-colored minerals such as quartz and feldspar.

A volcanic eruption through a crack or fissure, producing extensive lava flows.

A deep, glacially carved valley filled with seawater, typically found in high-latitude coastal regions.

A tectonic process where small pieces of crust are detached and displaced, often found in subduction zones.

A sedimentary basin formed by the bending of Earth's crust due to tectonic loading.

An overflow of water onto normally dry land, often caused by heavy rainfall, snowmelt, or dam failure.

Large-scale lava flows that cover vast areas, often linked to mantle plumes.

The flat area adjacent to a river, periodically inundated by floods and built up by sediment deposition.

Melting caused by the addition of water or other volatiles to hot rock, reducing the melting point.

The point within Earth where an earthquake originates.

A bend in rock layers caused by compressive forces.

Metamorphic rock with a layered or banded appearance due to the alignment of minerals.

The planar arrangement of mineral grains or structural features in a rock, typically due to pressure.

The block of rock below a dipping fault plane.

Microscopic marine organisms with calcium carbonate shells, often used as climate proxies.

A type of deep-sea sediment composed largely of foraminifera shells.

Inclined layers of sediment in a delta or dune, deposited by currents.

A smaller earthquake preceding a larger mainshock.

A body of rock with recognizable and mappable characteristics, often forming a stratigraphic unit.

Organic materials like coal, oil, and natural gas, formed from ancient plant and animal remains.

The process by which different minerals crystallize from magma at different temperatures.

The way a mineral breaks along irregular surfaces rather than along cleavage planes.

The physical weathering of rock due to water freezing and expanding in cracks.

A coarse-grained igneous rock that is chemically equivalent to basalt.

A unit of heredity in living organisms, encoding traits or functions.

The study of interactions between the biosphere and geosphere.

The movement of elements and compounds between Earth's spheres, such as the carbon or nitrogen cycle.

A component of Earth (e.g., ocean, atmosphere) that stores chemicals in the geochemical cycle.

The science of measuring the Earth's shape, gravity field, and spatial positions.

The mechanism that generates Earth's magnetic field, driven by convection in the liquid outer core.

A diagram showing a vertical slice through Earth's crust, revealing rock layers and structures.

A map that represents the distribution and relationships of rock types and structures at Earth's surface.

The history of Earth as preserved in layers of rock and sediment.

A chronological framework dividing Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs.

The study of landforms and the processes that shape them.

A system of interconnected processes and components that define Earth and its subsystems.

The variation of temperature with depth inside Earth.

Heat energy derived from Earth's interior, often used as a renewable energy source.

The alternating periods of glacial advance (ice ages) and retreat (interglacials).

The upward movement of Earth's crust following the melting of glacial ice, relieving the weight of the ice.

A mass of ice that moves slowly over land, formed by compacted snow.

Large-scale environmental changes, including climate change, biodiversity loss, and alterations to Earth's systems.

A foliated metamorphic rock with distinct banding caused by the segregation of mineral types.

Sedimentary layers with particle size decreasing from bottom to top, indicating deposition by a waning current.

A stream in equilibrium, with a profile adjusted to transport sediment load efficiently.

The size and shape of mineral particles in a rock, which influence its texture.

A metamorphic rock with equigranular, interlocking crystals, typically formed under high-temperature conditions.

A coarse-grained igneous rock intermediate in composition between granite and diorite.

A high-grade metamorphic rock with granular texture, formed under high-temperature and low-water conditions.

Loose rock fragments larger than sand but smaller than cobbles, typically found in stream beds or as sediment.

A type of sandstone containing a mix of rock fragments, feldspar, and quartz in a muddy matrix.

The trapping of heat in Earth's atmosphere by greenhouse gases, leading to warming.

Gases like carbon dioxide and methane that trap heat in the atmosphere and contribute to global warming.

A low-grade metamorphic rock with green minerals such as chlorite and epidote.

A metamorphosed basalt, often found in ancient volcanic belts.

Water stored underground in soil or rock pore spaces and fractures.

The upper surface of the saturated zone, where groundwater is found.

A flat-topped seamount, formed by erosion when it was above sea level.

The region around a star where conditions allow liquid water, and potentially life, to exist.

The time it takes for half of a radioactive isotope to decay, used for radiometric dating.

A valley formed by a smaller glacier that meets a main valley at a higher elevation, often with waterfalls.

The block of rock above a dipping fault plane.

A mineral's resistance to scratching, measured on the Mohs scale.

A period in early solar system history characterized by frequent asteroid and comet impacts on planetary surfaces.

An iron oxide mineral (Fe2O3) and a major source of iron ore, often reddish-brown.

An organism that obtains energy by consuming organic material, unlike autotrophs.

Metamorphism that occurs at high pressures, typically in subduction zones.

The principle that sedimentary layers are originally deposited horizontally.

vA fine-grained metamorphic rock formed by contact metamorphism.

A location where magma rises from deep in the mantle, forming volcanic activity away from plate boundaries.

Hot, mineral-rich water solutions that originate from magma and can deposit minerals in cracks or spaces in rocks.

The organic component of soil, formed by the decomposition of plant and animal material.

A powerful tropical cyclone with sustained winds of 74 mph or higher, forming over warm ocean waters.

A process of breaking rock layers using high-pressure fluid injections to extract oil or gas.

The slope of the water table or pressure surface, driving groundwater flow.

Energy generated by the movement of water, often using dams to produce electricity.

The continuous movement of water on, above, and below Earth's surface, including evaporation, precipitation, and runoff.

The scientific study of water distribution, movement, and properties on and below Earth's surface.

Geological processes involving heated water, typically near volcanic or tectonic regions.

Water heated by Earth's internal heat, often found near geothermal features like hot springs or geysers.

A period of prolonged global cooling, characterized by the advance of continental and polar ice sheets.

A floating sheet of ice attached to a landmass, typically found at polar regions.

A fast-moving channel of ice within a glacier or ice sheet.

The process of chunks of ice breaking off from glaciers or ice shelves to form icebergs.

Rock formed by the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

The process by which water penetrates into the ground from the surface.

Earth's innermost layer, composed mostly of solid iron and nickel, with extreme temperatures and pressure.

A scale (e.g., the Modified Mercalli Scale) used to measure the effects of an earthquake at specific locations.

A warmer period within an ice age, marked by the retreat of glaciers and milder climates.

Igneous rock with a composition between mafic and felsic, such as andesite or diorite.

Igneous rock that forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, resulting in coarse-grained textures (e.g., granite).

A chemical bond formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms, creating oppositely charged ions.

A sedimentary rock composed of alternating layers of iron-rich minerals and silica, formed in ancient oceans.

A curved chain of volcanic islands formed along a subduction zone where one tectonic plate sinks beneath another.

A line on a diagram or map indicating equal ages, often used in radiometric dating.

The equilibrium state of Earth's crust, where it "floats" on the denser mantle depending on its thickness and density.

Variants of an element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

A method of determining the age of rocks or minerals using the decay of radioactive isotopes.

A fracture in rock with no significant displacement, often caused by stress.

A clay mineral used in ceramics and paper production, formed by the chemical weathering of feldspar.

A landscape characterized by features like sinkholes, caves, and underground streams, formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone.

A depression formed by melting ice blocks buried in glacial sediment, often forming a kettle lake.

A destructive volcanic mudflow composed of ash, debris, and water.

A smooth, layered flow of fluid in parallel layers, with minimal mixing between them.

A natural feature of Earth's surface, such as a mountain, valley, or plateau.

A massive accumulation of igneous rocks, often from prolonged volcanic activity, covering large areas.

Molten rock that erupts onto Earth's surface, cooling to form igneous rocks.

A sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate, often formed from marine organisms' remains.

The process by which saturated sediments lose strength and behave like a liquid during seismic shaking.

A type of sandstone containing significant amounts of rock fragments.

The process of turning sediment into solid rock through compaction and cementation.

The rigid outer layer of Earth, including the crust and upper mantle.

Fine, wind-blown silt and clay, often deposited in large areas during glacial periods.

A graph showing the elevation of a river from its source to its mouth.

A water current that moves parallel to the shoreline, caused by waves hitting the shore at an angle.

The region of Earth's mantle between the transition zone and the outer core, composed of solid, dense rock.

A region in Earth's upper mantle where seismic waves travel slower, often associated with partially molten rock.

The way a mineral reflects light, described as metallic, glassy, dull, etc.

Igneous rock rich in magnesium and iron, with dark-colored minerals like pyroxene and olivine.

Molten rock beneath Earth's surface, capable of forming igneous rocks when cooled.

A reservoir of magma located beneath a volcano.

The process by which new magma is added to Earth's crust from the mantle.

The process by which a single magma evolves into rocks of different compositions due to crystal formation and separation.

A variation in Earth's magnetic field caused by differences in rock composition or structure.

The region of space around a magnetized object where magnetic forces are exerted, such as Earth's geomagnetic field.

A record of Earth's magnetic field reversals preserved in rocks.

The physical phenomenon caused by moving electric charges, influencing materials with magnetic properties.

A scale (e.g., Richter scale) used to measure the energy released by an earthquake.

The layer of Earth located between the crust and the core, composed of silicate rocks that flow over geological timescales.

An upwelling of abnormally hot rock within the mantle, which may cause volcanic activity at Earth's surface.

A metamorphic rock formed from limestone or dolostone, characterized by its recrystallized calcite or dolomite grains.

A widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth, such as the extinction event that killed the dinosaurs.

The downward movement of soil, rock, or debris due to gravity, such as landslides or rockfalls.

The process by which material moves downslope under the influence of gravity, including landslides and slumps.

A bend or curve in a river, formed as water erodes the outer bank and deposits sediment on the inner bank.

A chaotic mix of rock types, often found in subduction zones, representing tectonically disrupted material.

A flat-topped hill with steep sides, typically found in arid environments.

A type of chemical bond where electrons are shared freely among a lattice of metal atoms, giving metals their conductivity and malleability.

A set of metamorphic mineral assemblages indicative of specific pressure-temperature conditions.

Rock formed from the alteration of existing rock (protolith) under heat, pressure, and chemical processes.

The process of mineralogical, textural, and structural change in rocks caused by heat, pressure, and chemical reactions.

A metamorphic process where the chemical composition of a rock is altered by fluid exchange.

Water derived from precipitation, such as rain or snow, that infiltrates the ground.

A fragment of rock or metal from space that survives its passage through Earth's atmosphere and lands on the surface.

A layered microbial community, often found in environments like hot springs or tidal flats, representing some of Earth's earliest ecosystems.

A microscopic fossil, often of plankton or microorganisms, used to study past environments.

A microscopic living organism, such as bacteria, archaea, or protists.

An underwater mountain range formed by plate tectonics where new oceanic crust is created through volcanic activity.

Cyclical changes in Earth's orbit and tilt that affect climate over tens of thousands of years, contributing to ice ages.

A naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a defined chemical composition and crystalline structure.

The scientific study of minerals, including their properties, structure, and formation.

The boundary between Earth's crust and mantle, marked by a change in seismic wave speeds.

A scale from 1 (talc) to 10 (diamond) used to measure the hardness of minerals.

An accumulation of glacial debris (till) left behind by a moving glacier.

Fine-grained sediment consisting of silt and clay particles, often mixed with water.

A sedimentary rock made of hardened mud.

A fossil fuel composed primarily of methane, formed from decomposed organic matter.

A raised embankment of sediment deposited along a river during floods.

A material or substance found in nature that is useful to humans, such as water, minerals, or forests.

The evolutionary process where organisms better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce more successfully.

The theory that the solar system formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust, called a nebula.

A process that counteracts change, stabilizing a system, such as cooling effects of increased cloud cover in response to warming.

A resource, such as fossil fuels, that cannot be replenished within a human timescale.

A type of fault where the hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall, caused by extensional stress.

Energy released during nuclear fission or fusion, often used in power generation.

A fault with both horizontal and vertical displacement.

A volcanic glass formed by the rapid cooling of silica-rich lava.

The decrease in ocean pH caused by the absorption of excess atmospheric carbon dioxide.

A geological formation that prevents the upward migration of oil and gas, allowing them to accumulate.

The range of temperature and pressure conditions under which oil is formed from organic material in sediments.

A section of oceanic crust and upper mantle exposed on land, often through tectonic processes.

A rock or mineral from which valuable metals or minerals can be profitably extracted.

A rock formed from the accumulation of organic material, such as coal or oil shale.

A mountain range formed by tectonic forces during orogeny.

The process of mountain building through tectonic plate interactions, such as collision or subduction.

The liquid layer of Earth's core, composed of iron and nickel, responsible for generating Earth's magnetic field.

Sediment deposited by meltwater streams from a glacier, typically sorted by size.

A crescent-shaped lake formed when a river meander is cut off from the main channel.

A group of minerals composed of oxygen and a metal or other element, such as hematite or magnetite.

The study of the magnetic properties of rocks to understand Earth's magnetic field history and plate tectonic movements.

A supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras, which later broke apart into today's continents.

The process where only a portion of a rock melts, typically producing magma with a different composition than the original rock.

A tectonically inactive continental margin, such as the eastern coast of North America, where no significant plate boundary activity occurs.

Partially decayed organic material, often found in wetlands, which can eventually transform into coal under heat and pressure.

A gently sloping surface at the base of a mountain range, formed by erosion and deposition.

A very coarse-grained igneous rock that forms during the final stages of magma crystallization, often rich in rare minerals.

Fine-grained sediment that accumulates on the deep ocean floor, often composed of clay, silt, and microscopic organisms.

An ultramafic igneous rock composed mainly of olivine and pyroxene, commonly found in Earth's mantle.

A division of geological time within an era, marked by distinct rock formations and fossil records.

Permanently frozen ground, typically found in polar regions or high altitudes.

The ability of a material, such as soil or rock, to allow fluids to flow through its pores or fractures.

A transformation in the physical state of a material, such as melting, freezing, or solid-solid transitions in minerals under pressure.

A sedimentary rock rich in phosphate minerals, often mined as a source of phosphorus for fertilizers.

The biological process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose and oxygen.

The mechanical breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces without chemical alteration, caused by processes like freezing, abrasion, or pressure changes.

A small body formed during the early stages of the solar system's formation, which could coalesce into planets through gravitational attraction.

The slow deformation of a solid material, such as ice in a glacier, under the influence of stress.

The large-scale movement and interaction of Earth's lithospheric plates, driven by mantle convection, slab pull, and ridge push.

The scientific theory describing the movement and interaction of Earth's plates, responsible for processes such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building.

An elevated, flat region of land, often formed by volcanic activity, uplift, or erosion of surrounding material.

A dry, flat area in an arid region, often the site of a former lake that periodically floods and evaporates.

A temporary lake that forms in a playa after heavy rainfall, often evaporating to leave behind salt or sediment deposits.

A large, intrusive igneous rock body that crystallized from magma beneath Earth's surface.

A crescent-shaped accumulation of sediment on the inside bend of a river meander, formed by deposition.

A mineral that has the same chemical composition as another but a different crystalline structure (e.g., diamond and graphite).

The percentage of a material's volume that consists of open spaces (pores), which can store fluids like water or oil.

An igneous rock with large, well-formed crystals (phenocrysts) embedded in a finer-grained matrix.

A process that amplifies change in a system, such as the melting of ice leading to reduced albedo and further warming.

Water that is safe for drinking.

A bowl-shaped depression in a riverbed, formed by the grinding action of sediment and water.

A solid substance that forms and separates from a liquid solution due to a chemical reaction or changes in temperature or pressure.

Any form of water, such as rain, snow, sleet, or hail, that falls from the atmosphere to Earth's surface.

The concept that fossilized organisms follow a specific chronological order, allowing geologists to determine relative ages of rock layers.

The concept that sedimentary rocks are originally deposited in horizontal or nearly horizontal layers.

The geological principle stating that in an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks, the oldest layers are at the bottom and the youngest are at the top.

The concept that geological processes operating in the past are the same as those observed today, forming the basis of modern geology.

A light, porous volcanic rock formed during explosive eruptions when magma is rapidly cooled and depressurized.

A type of seismic wave (primary wave) that compresses and expands material, traveling through solids, liquids, and gases.

A fragment of volcanic material, such as ash, pumice, or rock, ejected during an eruption.

A fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic material that flows down the sides of a volcano during an eruption.

A unit of energy equal to 10^15 (one quadrillion) British Thermal Units (BTUs), often used in energy studies.

A sedimentary rock composed almost entirely of quartz grains, often well-sorted and cemented.

A dry area on the leeward side of a mountain range, caused by the loss of moisture from air as it rises and cools on the windward side.

The process by which groundwater is replenished through infiltration of precipitation or surface water.

The average time between natural events, such as floods or earthquakes, of a specific magnitude in a given area.

Sedimentary rock layers that are predominantly red due to iron oxide minerals, typically formed in arid or oxidizing environments.

A ridge or mound of coral, rock, or other material in shallow ocean waters, often serving as a habitat for marine life.

The renewal of erosion or river downcutting due to tectonic uplift or a drop in base level.

The age of a rock, fossil, or geological feature compared to others, without determining its absolute age.

The amount of water vapor in the air compared to the maximum amount it can hold at a given temperature, expressed as a percentage.

The speed and direction of one tectonic plate relative to another.

The difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points in a region.

A typo; likely refers to felsic rock, which is igneous rock rich in silica and light-colored minerals like quartz and feldspar.

A natural resource that can be replenished naturally over time, such as sunlight, wind, or forests.

A known quantity of a resource, such as minerals or fossil fuels, that can be extracted under current conditions.

The average time a substance, such as water or carbon, spends in a reservoir or system.

A naturally occurring material or substance that can be used by humans, such as minerals, water, or energy sources.

The biological process where organisms break down glucose to release energy, producing carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.

A fine-grained, silica-rich volcanic rock, often light-colored and associated with explosive eruptions.

Silica-rich lava with high viscosity, often associated with explosive volcanic eruptions.

A flowing body of water that moves from higher to lower elevations, often carrying sediment.

A depression formed by extensional tectonics, where Earth's crust is being pulled apart.

Small wave-like structures formed on a sediment surface by wind, water, or currents.

A naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals or mineraloids.

The continuous process of rock formation, transformation, and recycling through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes.

A supercontinent that existed during the Proterozoic Eon, predating Pangaea.

Water that flows over the surface of the land, often reaching rivers, lakes, or oceans, rather than infiltrating the ground.

The concentration of dissolved salts in water, typically measured in parts per thousand (‰).

The hopping or bouncing movement of sand-sized particles in a fluid medium, such as wind or water.

Coarse-grained sediment composed of particles between 0.0625 and 2 mm in diameter, often consisting of quartz or other minerals.

The erosion of surfaces by sand particles carried by wind or water.

A sedimentary rock composed of sand-sized particles, typically cemented by silica, calcite, or clay.

Alteration of oceanic crust by hydrothermal fluids, often occurring at mid-ocean ridges.

A foliated metamorphic rock characterized by visible mineral grains and a pronounced schistosity, or layering.

An underwater mountain formed by volcanic activity, often isolated and rising from the ocean floor.

The process of new oceanic crust forming at mid-ocean ridges and moving outward as tectonic plates diverge.

The subsurface region where all pore spaces are filled with water, also called the phreatic zone.

A low area where sediments accumulate, often forming thick deposits of sedimentary rock over geological time.

Loose particles of rock, mineral, or biological material transported and deposited by wind, water, or ice.

The conditions under which sediment is deposited, such as rivers, lakes, or deserts.

The potential for ground shaking and other earthquake-related effects in a given area.

Rock formed by the accumulation and compaction of sediment, or by precipitation of minerals from solution.

Features within sedimentary rocks, such as bedding, cross-bedding, or ripple marks, that provide clues to their depositional environment.

The potential for ground shaking and other earthquake-related effects in a given area.

The probability of damage or loss caused by seismic events, considering factors like population and infrastructure.

Imaging of Earth's interior using seismic waves to study structures like mantle plumes or subducting plates.

Vibrations caused by earthquakes or other seismic events that travel through Earth's crust, mantle, or core.

An instrument used to detect and record seismic waves generated by earthquakes or other vibrations.

The speed at which a particle falls through a fluid, influenced by its size, shape, and density.

Areas on Earth's surface where seismic waves are not detected due to their refraction or reflection within Earth's interior.

A fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of silt and clay particles, often forming in quiet water environments like lakes or oceans.

A type of seismic wave (S-wave) that moves material perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, traveling only through solids.

A force that causes layers or parts of a material to slide past each other.

A large, stable area of ancient continental crust composed mainly of metamorphic and igneous rocks.

A broad, gently sloping volcano built up from fluid basaltic lava flows.

Changes in rock texture and mineralogy caused by the intense pressure and heat of an impact event, such as a meteorite strike.

The boundary between land and a body of water, such as a lake, river, or ocean.

A mineral composed of silicon and oxygen, often combined with other elements, forming the most abundant group of minerals in Earth's crust.

A deep-sea sediment rich in silica, derived from the remains of microorganisms like diatoms and radiolarians.

Sediments composed of silicate minerals and rock fragments, typically transported and deposited by water, wind, or ice.

A tabular igneous intrusion that forms parallel to existing rock layers.

Fine-grained sediment with particle sizes between clay and sand, often carried and deposited by rivers.

A sedimentary rock composed predominantly of silt-sized particles.

A depression or hole in the ground caused by the collapse of a surface layer into a void, often formed in areas with limestone bedrock.

A fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock formed from shale, characterized by its ability to split into thin sheets.

The steep, leeward side of a sand dune where sand grains cascade down due to gravity, forming an angle of repose.

A type of mass wasting where material moves downslope as a coherent block along a curved surface, often forming terraces.

A natural mixture of mineral and organic material, water, and air that supports plant growth and forms the upper layer of Earth's surface.

A vertical section of soil layers (horizons), showing variations in composition, texture, and structure from the surface to the parent material.

Energy derived from the Sun's radiation, used as a renewable energy source for heating, electricity, and other applications.

The change in Earth's climate caused by variations in solar radiation, such as fluctuations in solar activity or orbital changes.

A rotating cloud of gas and dust from which the Sun and the rest of the solar system formed about 4.6 billion years ago.

The degree to which sediment particles are uniform in size, often indicating the energy and consistency of the depositional environment.

The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water, used to describe the relative weight of minerals or fluids.

The range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet.

A narrow landform of sand or gravel that extends into a body of water, formed by longshore drift and deposition.

A tectonic boundary where two plates diverge, resulting in the formation of new oceanic crust, often at mid-ocean ridges.

A strategy for reducing carbon emissions by breaking them into manageable "wedges," each representing a specific technology or approach.

A small, irregularly shaped intrusive igneous rock body, often connected to a larger pluton.

A rise in sea level caused by strong winds and low atmospheric pressure during a storm, often associated with hurricanes.

A sequence of rock layers that reflects the chronological order of deposition or formation.

The study of rock layers (strata) and their relationships, used to interpret Earth's history and geological events.

The atmospheric layer above the troposphere, characterized by a temperature increase with altitude and the presence of the ozone layer.

A steep, cone-shaped volcano built from alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic material, often associated with explosive eruptions.

The color of a mineral's powdered form, observed by rubbing it on a porcelain streak plate.

A flowing body of water confined within a channel, varying in size from a small creek to a large river.