Prüfung 2

• Old Sci-Fi Computing Vision

• Isaac Asimov 1956

• IT Ressources as Utility

• First Approach t this: Virtualization: memory, disk CPUs

Today: Cloud Computing and Containerization

Mainframe Era:

• Monolithic

• Powerful computers used mainly by large organizations for critical applications

• Centralized computing

• No communication with outside

• Time-sharing

Client-Server Era:

• There is more than one computer in the world

• Common hardware becomes more powerful

• Distributed computing

• Web

Cloud Era:

• Increased network bandwith and reliability

• No need to invest large amounts of money in hardware

• Large data centers

• Virtualized resources

DevOps is a software development methodology that combines and automates software Development (Dev) and information technology Operations (Ops)

• To shorten the systems development life cycle

• Delivering features, fixes, and updates frequently

• In close alignment with business objectives

Virtualization:

• Act of creating a virtual (rather than actual) version of something, including virtual computer hardware platforms, storage devices, and computer network resources

• Different forms of virtualization, as hardware, desktop,—-

—> Culmination in new Computing Paradigm: Clould Computing

• Hardware virtualization or platform virtualization refers to the creation of a virtual machine that acts like a real computer with an operating system

• OS-level virtualization, also known as containerization, refers to an operating system paradigm in which the kernel allows the existence of multiple isolated user-space instances

• Desktop virtualization separates the logical desktop from the physical machine (e.g., game streaming Stadia, Remote Desktop)

• Application Virtualization (also known as Process Virtualization) is software technology that encapsulates computer programs from the underlying operating system on which it is executed (e.g. sandboxing)

• Network virtualization is the process of combining hardware and software network resources and network functionality into a single, software-based administrative entity (e.g. overlay virtual network)

Hardware virtualization or platform virtualization refers to the creation of a virtual machine that acts like a real computer with an operating system

• Virtual machine, that acts like a real computer with operating system

• Hypervisor necessary, i.e., computer software, firmware or hardware that creates and runs virtual machines

  • Type I: bare-metal or native hypervisor that are deployed directly over the host's system hardware without any underlying operating systems or software, e.g., Microsoft Hyper-V hypervisor, VMware ESXi, IBM z/VM, KVM, Xen

    • e.g., Xen used by Amazon EC2, Rackspace Cloud …

• Type II: hosted hypervisor that runs as a software layer within a physical operating system, e.g. Oracle Virtualbox, Parallels Desktop, VMware Player • Some solutions blur these boundaries

• Some solutions blur these boundaries

OS-level virtualization, also known as containerization, refers to an operating system paradigm in which the kernel allows the existence of multiple isolated user-space instances

• Host OS-kernel allows multiple isolated user-space instances

  • Such instances, called containers (zones, jails, etc.), may look like real computers from the point of view of programs running in them

• A container is a runtime instance of an executable package that includes everything needed to run an application

  • As code, runtime libraries, environment variables, configuration file

• Container is lightweight (Example Docker)

• A virtual machine runs as full blown “guest” OS with virtual access to host resources through a hypervisor

• Docker is a platform for Developers and Operators (Sysadmins) to automate the

  • development,

  • deployment, and

  • running of applications

• with containers: Tool for DevOps

• Containers leverage the low-level mechanics of the host operating system, to provide most of the isolation of virtual machines at a fraction of the computing power

  • Implements a high-level API to provide lightweight containers that run processes in isolation

• Developer: “Build once … (finally) run anywhere”

• Operator: “Configure once … run anything”

• An Image is an executable package that includes everything needed to run an application

• Code, runtime libraries, environment variables, and configuration files

• A Container is what the image becomes in memory when executed (that is, an image with state, or a user process)

• 
  

• Flexible: Even the most complex applications can be containerized

• Lightweight: Containers leverage and share the host kernel

• Interchangeable: You can deploy updates and upgrades on-the-fly

• Portable: You can build locally, deploy to the cloud, and run anywhere

• Scalable: You can increase and automatically distribute container replicas

• Stackable: You can stack services vertically and on-the-fly

• Amazon Web Services

• Microsoft Azure

• Digital Ocean

• Google Compute Engine

• OpenStack

• Rackspace

• … (many, many more)

  
  

• Increased attention since 2013/2014

Desktop virtualization separates the logical desktop from the physical machine (e.g., game streaming Stadia, Remote Desktop)

Application Virtualization (also known as Process Virtualization) is software technology that encapsulates computer programs from the underlying operating system on which it is executed (e.g. sandboxing)

Network virtualization is the process of combining hardware and software network resources and network functionality into a single, software-based administrative entity (e.g. overlay virtual network)

• Starting point "Distributed Systems"

  • „A distributed System is one in which (hardware or software) components located at networked computers communicate and coordinate their actions only by passing messages“

• "The largest supercomputer of the world is the Internet"

• Pool of resources: CPUs (work power), Disks (storage), Networks (infrastructures), Knowledge (competence), …

  
  

• Distributed and Parallel Computing (HPC, Supercomputer, …)

• Cluster

• Web computing, Internet of Services and Things •

• Grid Computing

• Cloud Computing

• The most important significant change in the IT priorities of ESG’s 2011 survey is the increased importance attached to cloud computing services. - ESG Research Thomson Reuters

• IT spending on cloud computing (Gartner)

• • Estimate for 2023 was: 591 Billions US$

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“Cloud computing is a model for enabling convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. This cloud model promotes availability and is composed of five essential characteristics, three service models, and four deployment models.”

• Resources Pooling

  • Resources are shared by multiple tenants

  • Sense of location independence

• Rapid elasticity

  • Resources can scale Up/Down

  • Any quantity at any time

• On-demand Self-service

  • Unilaterally (self) provision of computing capabilities as needed

  • Within mere minutes or seconds

• Broad Network Access

  • Access from anywhere

  • Standard mechanisms

• Measured Service

  • Pay-as-you-go Service

  • Metering capability

Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

• Provision of computer infrastructure as a service

• Hardware, as cores, disks, network, OSs

Platform as a Service (PaaS)

• Solution stack as a service

• Provides computational resources via a platform upon which application and services can be developed and hosted

  
  

Software as a Service (SaaS)

• Model of software deployment whereby a provider licenses an application to consumer for use as a service on demand

  • Google Docs, GMail, Salesforce CRM

  • Microsoft 365, OneDrive, OneNote, Teams, Word, …

• A Cloud Database is a database that typically runs on a cloud computing platform, access to it is provided as a service

  • Virtual machine Image: Users execute their own machine image with a database installed

  • Database Container

  • DBaaS

• Database as a Service (DBaaS)

  • Application owners do not have to maintain the database themselves

  • Database service provider takes responsibility for installing and maintaining the database system and database

  • Application owners are charged according to their usage of the service

• Examples:

  • MongoDB Atlas: MongoDB as a service

• Cloud Database: flexible, affordable, and scalable database management.

• DBaaS (Database-as-a-Service): fully managed cloud platform; no installation needed

• Scalability: As an application grows in size and complexity, MongoDB can grow

• 24/7 Availability: built-in backup and recovery, ensuring it is 'always on.'

• Handling Large Datasets

• Flexible Document Schemas

• Powerful Querying and Analytics

• Multi-cloud Deployment

• Cost Efficiency

• Security

• Automated Backup and Recovery

• Data Visualization Tool

• Easy Installation and Integration

• Data API

• Internet

• Web 2.0

• Fault-Tolerance

• Parallel and Distributed Computing

• Utility Computing

• Programming MOdels

• Storage Technologies

• Virtualization

• Infrastructure- and platform-services very convenient for Startups or SMEs and rapid prototyping of solutions

• Advantage of the Pay-per-use cost model

• Allows to roll out business model with limited financial effor

  • No costly SW and HW necessary

  • high initial investments often lost, if idea does not fly

• Allows SME to focus on core business

  • Computer center services are „out-sourced“

• What about out-sourcing of data?

  • Often refused due to security, privacy and legal issues

  • Company and customer data

Intrusion:

• 1975 problem recognized

• 1987 first models and system of intrusion detection

• today 3064 search serults on IEEE

Theft

• Malware

• 1949: Von Neumann starts working on self-replication automate, published 1966

• 1971 Creeper -considered first virus infection ARPANET computers

• -> 1st Anti-virus program: “Reaper” was created to delete Creeper

Back Doors in in Software and IT systems

• SolarWinds cyberattack (2020): In 2020, a cyberattack on an unprecedented scale, known as the Sunburst attack, targeted SolarWinds, a major software company based in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The attackers were able to gain access to the company’s systems through a back door in the SolarWinds Orion software, which was then used to compromise the systems of thousands of SolarWinds’ customers, including several U.S. government agencies, for up to 14 months.

• NotPetya malware attack (2017): focused on Ukraine, inflicted enormous collateral damage across the globe. It’s estimated that organizations collectively lost $1 billion because of the attack.

• Ukraine power grid attack (2015): notable for being the first successful cyberattack on a power grid.

• Cyberattacks on Estonia (2007): massively destabilized the Baltic state’s infrastructure and economy, causing nationwide communication breakdowns, banking failures and media blackouts

• Spending on information security and risk management products and services is forecast to grow 11.3% to reach more than $188.3 billion in 2023.

• Cloud security is the category forecast to have the strongest growth over the next two years (26,8% in 2023)

Increase of data value

• Huge data volumes

• Strong connection of IT and companies (see IT Governance)

Increase of number of potential attackers

• Increasing number of users

• Accessible Know-How of security holes

  • Problem Open Source Software

• Decentralization

Increased number of attacks

• Lacking law regulations

• Low ethical barrier

• Lacking control mechanisms

The CIA triad of Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability is at the heart of information security.

• Data authenticity

• Non-repudiation

• Access control

• Accountability

• Data has not been modified while in transit (data integrity) and receiving party can verify the source of the message (provenance of data)

  • Typically, combine message authentication codes (MACs), authenticated encryption (AE) or digital signatures.

  • Does not include non-repudiation

  • Examples: Digital Signatures, PGP with emails

• assert the assignment of an action to a subject, a proof of authenticity of action, which cannot be denied by an authenticated party

  • Examples

    • Send (i) and receive (ii) of messages: provide proof that (i) you indeed sent the message, (ii) sent indeed by the claimed sender, and message wasn’t tampered with during transmission.

    • Superuser/Administrator responsibilities: track actions and tie them back to the specific administrator who performed the actions.

  • Methods are typically digitally signed acknowledgments

• Access control is the selective restriction of access to a place or other resource

  • Permission to access a resource is called authorization.

  • Access control builds on correct authentication of user (or programs)

  • Examples: Access control of an OS for single users, group, or rest of world, ABAC (Attribute-Based Access Control) vs. RBAC (Role-Based Access Control)

• Accountability is a service protocolling which user has accessed which resources at what time

  • Needs working access control and non-repudiation

  • Examples

    • Transaction logs (date, time, number and duration of a used resource

    • Basis of commercial use (building block of cloud computing)

Saltzer and Schröder 1975

• Historical starting point ensuring security in Multics operating system (1974), Unix (1974), …

Economy of mechanism: Used security mechanisms and processes must be simple to use that they can be applied automatically and routinely

• „Keep the design as simple and small as possible.“

Fail-safe defaults: Base access decisions on permission rather than exclusion

• „The default situation is lack of access.“

Complete mediation: It forces a system-wide view of access control and implies that a foolproof method of identifying the source of every request must be devised

• „Every access to every object must be checked for authority.“

Open design: The design of a system should not be secret, and all protection mechanisms must be open

• „No security through obscurity.”

Separation of privilege: No single accident, deception, or breach of trust is sufficient to compromise the protected IT system

„Two keys“, „Multi-factor …“

Least privilege: Every program and every user of the system should operate using the least set of privileges necessary to complete the job

• „Just-Need-to-know security rule“

Least common mechanism: Minimize the amount of mechanism common to more than one user and depended on by all users

• „Restrict processes to one user only (if possible)“

Psychological acceptability: It is essential that the human interface be designed for ease of use, so that users routinely and automatically apply the protection mechanisms correctly

• „Mental image of user’s protection goals matches the mechanisms to use“

• Security Engineering comprises all tools, processes and methods for design, implementation and test of protected IT-systems.

  • Structured engineering approach („Security by Design“)

  • Goal: Development of a comprising security model

• Two examples

  • IT-Grundschutz

    • The IT Baseline Protection Catalogs, or IT-Grundschutz-Kataloge, are a collection of documents from the German Federal Office for Security in Information Technology (BSI, Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik) that provide useful information („Best Practice“) for detecting weaknesses and combating attacks in the information technology (IT) environment (IT cluster), https://www.bsi.bund.de/

  • OCTAVE (Operationally Critical Threat, Asset, and Vulnerability Evaluation)

    • The OCTAVE method is an approach used to assess an organization's information security needs based on risk analysis.

    • Developed in cooperation of Carnegie Mellon University, CERT (Computer Emergency Response Team) and support of department of defense of the USA

• Encryption

• Certificate

• Digital signatures

• PGP method

• HTTPS

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• A (Public Key) Certificate is a digital document that maps a public key to the identity of a person

  • Certificate Authority guarantees the identity of this individual (person)

  • With creation of certificate a key-pair (private and public key) is instantiated and assigned to the owner of the certificate

• Essential components

  • Serial number

  • Personal data (name, company)

  • Public key of person or organization

  • A signature of the certificate authority by the issuer's private key

  • A certificate contains no secret information!

• Validity duration of Certificate

  • Invalid after deadline

  • Possibility of Certificate Revocation

• Usually, a certificate follows Standard X.509, Vers. 3

1. The SSL or TLS client sends a "client hello" message that lists cryptographic information such as the SSL or TLS version and, in the client's order of preference, the CipherSuites supported by the client. The message also contains a random byte string that is used in subsequent computations. The protocol allows for the "client hello" to include the data compression methods supported by the client.

2. The SSL or TLS server responds with a "server hello" message that contains the CipherSuite chosen by the server from the list provided by the client, the session ID, and another random byte string. The server also sends its digital certificate.

3. The SSL or TLS client verifies the server's digital certificate.

4. The SSL or TLS client sends the random byte string that enables both the client and the server to compute the secret key to be used for encrypting subsequent message data. The random byte string itself is encrypted with the server's public key.

5. If the SSL or TLS server sent a "client certificate request", the client sends a random byte string encrypted with the client's private key, together with the client's digital certificate, or a "no digital certificate alert".

6. The SSL or TLS server verifies the client's certificate.

7. The SSL or TLS client sends the server a "finished" message, which is encrypted with the secret key, indicating that the client part of the handshake is complete.

8. The SSL or TLS server sends the client a "finished" message, which is encrypted with the secret key, indicating that the server part of the handshake is complete.

9. For the duration of the SSL or TLS session, the server and client can now exchange messages that are symmetrically encrypted with the shared secret key.